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Jargon – how to understand it

September 7, 2009 by Roy Johnson

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Understanding jargon – definition

Jargon is ‘the technical vocabulary of a profession or group’.

The word is used as a form of criticism when such terms are used unnecessarily for communication outside a group.

Examples

legal probate, conveyance, intestate

computers download, Megabyte, serial port

engineering sprocket, crankshaft, centrifuge

gardening mulch, perennial, phlox

Use

Jargon can be a useful form of communication between members of the same group. It acts as a ‘shorthand’ which eliminates the need for lengthy explanations.

The most important thing about jargon is that it should only be used when communicating with people in the same group.

Some items of jargon eventually pass into common use because they seem to fill a need. Terms such as own-goal [from football] or repression [from psycho-analysis] were once jargon.

NB! There is often a very fine line between jargon [salary] and pretentious nonsense [personal remuneration package].

There is nothing wrong when jargon is used amongst members of the same group. It often acts as a sort of ‘shorthand’, which eliminates the need for lengthy explanations.

For instance, the foreman in a garage does not need to write on a mechanic’s worksheet:

‘Please regulate the device which provides a constant supply of petrol to the inlet manifold of the engine.’

He writes ‘Adjust the carbuettor’ — or even ‘Fix the carb’.

However, when you are communicating with people outside a group, you should use jargon as little as possible.

The term jargon in its most negative sense describes the use of technical or obscure terms when addressing a general audience.

For instance, what follows is a sentence in a letter from the Inland Revenue. It is addressed to ordinary members of the public.

The basis of assessment for Schedule D Case I and II, other than
commencement and cessation, is what is termed a previous year
basis.

This is an example of bad manners and poor communication. [Would you know what a ‘previous year basis’ means?]

Academic study has its own jargon too, depending upon the subject in question. Terms such as hegemony (political philosophy) discourse analysis (linguistics) and objective correlative (literary studies) would not be recognisable by an everyday reader, though they might be understood by someone studying the same subject.

Whatever the jargon of your own discipline, it should be used with precision, accuracy, and above all restraint.

Eric Partridge quotes the following example to illustrate the difference between a statement made in technical and non-technical form:

‘Chlorophyll makes food by photosynthesis.’

‘Green leaves build up food with the aid of light.’

Only use the specialised terms of your subject if you are quite sure of their meaning. Never use jargon to show off or ‘impress’ your reader. It is likely to create the opposite effect.

Do not use a jargon term where perfectly ordinary terms will be just as effective. There is not much virtue in using terms such as aerated beverages instead of fizzy drinks. These simply cause disruptions in
tone and create a weak style.

Here is an even more pretentious example, spotted recently:

“Enjoy your free sample of our moisturising cleansing bar”

…in other words – our soap.

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Language acquisition – understanding it

August 27, 2009 by Roy Johnson

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Language acquisition – definition

The term ‘language acquisition’ refers to the process by which humans begin to use language in speech.

In linguistic study it usually refers to child language development, but it can refer to adult acquisition of any language.

Examples

There are three main theories of language acquisition:

Behaviourist [Skinner] – language is learned by imitation

Cognitive [Piaget] – understanding leads to competence

Innate [Chomsky] – language automatically acquired

Use

Chomsky’s innateness theory has superseded the others and is now generally accepted as definitive.

Some knowledge of language acquisition theory is useful to anyone studying the English language, especially to schoolteachers who are teaching youngsters to read and write.

Speech therapists and audiologists also need to have a substantial knowledge of how language is acquired and developed.

NB! We acquire language just as we acquire the ability to walk upright. [That’s the current theory, anyway.]

In the study of language, speech is considered primary and as a system which is entirely separate from writing.

Children who are learning to write often confuse the two. They produce a written form of speech.

Maturity is demonstrated by the ability to use a literary style which is completely discrete and separate from speech.

Humans acquire speech due to their innate programming. Writing on the other hand is a skill which must be learnt in the same way as driving, sewing, or cooking.

Chomsky has argued that children do not learn language but acquire it by means of an innate facility. This means that they will be able to use language, just as they will walk on two legs or acquire a second set of teeth.

All children develop their ability to use language at approximately the same age and the same rate, despite any variations in nationality or circumstances.

In the process of child language development, the acquisition of phonology, semantics, and grammar progresses simultaneously until linguistic maturity is reached around the age of seven.

After this, an individual’s linguistic competence varies according to training, environment and perceived necessity.

Most people who have not studied child language acquisition would say that children acquire language by imitating what they hear. Even parents of young children are often of this opinion.

However, scientific research [and careful observation] shows that this is not true. The following is just some of the evidence in support of the innateness theory.

Young children acquire language universally at roughly the same rate, despite differences in their upbringing.

Children produce utterances they have never heard. For example, children often say ‘I goed’ instead of ‘I went’ or ‘I felled’ instead of ‘I fell’.

These mistakes (which amuse parents) are actually proof of the child’s programmed competence. In adding the sound ‘ed’ they are over-applying the rule for forming the past tense.

In other words, their pre-programmed facility is working. They actually have to learn those irregularities separately. The same process occurs in forming the plural of nouns.

The rule for this in English is to add ‘s’ or ‘es’ — as in houses, books, roads, toys, and most common nouns.

However, when it comes to terms such as ‘women’, ‘mice’, ‘sheep’, or ‘narcissus’, the child will over-apply the rule and say ‘mouses’, or ‘womens’ or ‘sheeps’. These mistakes are a positive sign that the innate faculty is operating.

The truth is that parents imitate children, rather than the other way round. In any supermarket or on any bus, we hear parents repeating a child’s baby-talk. If they are not doing this they are translating the baby talk. What is definitely noticeable by its absence is the child imitating adult speech.

Adults believe they are teaching children to speak, but research shows that children ignore these attempts and progress at their own pace. The process is useful however, as part of the desirable emotional bonding between adult and child.

Piaget believed that language competence went hand in hand with understanding the world around us. A child would only be able to speak meaningfully about concepts already internalised.

For example, a child would have to understand that a specified amount of water will reach vastly differing levels if poured into a narrow beaker or a wide bowl. Only then, would the child be able to verbalise anything concerning this phenomenon.

Piaget also divided the language learning process into three or four distinct stages. In the 1960s this lead to the practice of teaching foreign languages in primary schools to children of the ‘critical learning age’. This practice was quickly abandoned, because the children were very slow at picking up the foreign language compared with adults who were receiving the same method of tuition.

Skinner as a behaviourist believed that imitation was all and that children learnt language by imitation.

Whilst this is true for some factors of the acquisition process — such as learning the exceptions to rules of grammar – all the evidence points to the validity of the innateness theory.

Learning a foreign language is difficult unless the individual has been exposed to more than one language from infancy.

In adults, learning a foreign language means gaining a skill rather than drawing on the innate capacity, as in child language acquisition.

The most efficient way of acquiring a foreign language, therefore, is to be surrounded by native speakers of the language. This is the nearest to the natural process, but it can’t be the same because of the individual’s cognisance with his or her native tongue.

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Language change – how to understand it

August 30, 2009 by Roy Johnson

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Language change – definition

The term ‘language change’ refers to the evolution of language.

All languages are in a continuous process of evolution [as are all living phenomena].

Examples

Language change occurs in all of the following areas:

Phonology
[pronunciation] /æ/ as in Harry has become more open in RP

Semantics
[meaning] ‘gay’ meant happy, now it [also] means homosexual

Grammar
[structure] word-order has replaced inflection in importance

Use

An awareness and a knowledge of language change is essential for students of language.

It is a significant topic for linguists, who take a descriptive attitude and accept that change is inevitable. [Value judgements are considered inappropriate.]

However, prescriptive attitudes to language change are quite common. These can be observed in ‘letters to the editor’ complaining about [what is seen as] ‘a serious decline in the quality of the English Language’.

Change and evolution affects all living languages, without exception.

The study of language change falls into two categories – diachronic and synchronic.

Diachronic study focuses on change which has taken place over the whole duration of a language’s existence.

Synchronic study focuses on change which is taking place currently.

Diachronic study has to employ a variety of techniques, because for most of the period of study, sound records do not exist.

Some of the techniques used for assessing language change in the past are as follows:

classifying families of languages
study of manuscripts dating back to 500AD in English
study of ancient poems in which the rhyme no longer applies
representation of animal sounds

Synchronic study is technically easier because of the availability of recordings of spoken English.

One example of a current phonological change is the recent rise in intonation at the end of utterances in English. This is particularly prevalent among teenagers.

There are two main speculative explanations offered for this recent change:

unconscious emulation of the language of Australian TV soaps
desire for approbation similar to the tag question – “you know?”

There are two basic attitudes to language change – descriptive and proscriptive.

A descriptive attitude is one which accepts the inevitability of change in language. It concentrates on describing the way in which language is evolving like any other living phenomenon.

For instance, if ‘disinterested’ is being used to mean ‘uninterested’ by a sufficiently large number of speakers, this is charted as a feature of development rather than a cause for outrage.

Language is seen in this descriptive context as a self-perpetuating and highly functional system. This system adopts and discards terms to suit the communication needs of the people using it.

A descriptive approach to language change is one in which the rules of language are seen as patterns which emerge naturally and historically, and particularly the structural patterns which are crucial to the viability of the language in question.

For example, a descriptive rule of English is that of word order. A representative English sentence follows the sequence Subject–Verb–Object.

This particular rule is specially significant for its role in the development and change of the English language. This is because over the centuries word order has taken the place of inflections, and comprehensibility depends on it.

For example, the utterance ‘The dog bit the man’ comprises the same content as ‘The man bit the dog’ but the meaning is totally altered by the reversal of the position of the two nouns ‘man’ and ‘dog’.

A prescriptive attitude to language change is one which supports the desire to impose linguistic rules rather than to observe developing patterns.

Prescriptiveness is shown in attempts to fix or mend the language, which is thought to be in constant danger of erosion or demise. This deterioration is usually perceived as the result of contamination from foreign influx, or from lazy use by some of its native speakers.

Prescriptive rules are those superficial prohibitions which speak more of etiquette and prestige than of linguistic functionality.

An example of such a rule is that which forbids the use of a preposition at the end of a sentence – as in ‘Who did you go with?’

Winston Churchill’s well known utterance ‘Up with this I will not put’ demonstrates the ridiculous result of following such a rule.

This and many other prescriptive rules originally belonged to Latin. They were spuriously imposed on English during the eighteenth century when Latin was thought to be a perfect language and therefore a suitable blueprint for English grammar.

Many of the irregularities of English grammar have their origins in this imposition of Latin. However, linguists take the descriptive view that although this influence was artificial and forced, it was just one of the means by which English has evolved.

The foreign influences creating language change in English occurred chronologically as follows:

Native Celts invaded by Angles, Saxons, and Jutes.
Celts driven out, along with the Celtic language.
Angles, Saxons, and Jutes settle in England (Angle-land).
They use Anglo-Saxon of various dialects.
Scandinavians invade and settle alongside Anglo-Saxons.
Their languages eventually merge.
Norman conquests and French settlement create diglossia.
English and French co-exist for separate functions.

Language changes according to the changing needs of its users. It adapts to fulfil any linguistic function demanded of it. In this respect it can be seen as a highly efficient system.

The essential character of language as a universal human system does not change, but the intrinsic mechanisms within it allow individual languages to respond to the triggers for change.

Some triggers which have resulted in changes in English language:

political – foreign invasion by Angles, Saxons, Jutes, Scandinavians, French in the period AD 500—1400
socialforeign influences from Latin, French, American, Australian, Indian, Afro-Carribean
cultural – exposure of one language group to another via television, radio, and films
geographical – proximity between different language groups, such as Black and Asian immigrants
technological – rapid advances in information technology and genetic engineering
moral – recent developments in anti-racism and environmentalism

Grammar, because it is the structure of a language, is very slow to change compared with vocabulary which can be seen as fairly superficial and ephemeral.

Two significant grammatical changes have occurred during the history of the English language – the loss of inflections, and the transition of verbs and nouns from ‘strong’ to ‘weak’.

The loss of inflections. English, up to and during the Anglo-Saxon period, had word-endings which indicated the function of individual words in any utterance.

Word order has replaced the inflections in English in indicating the function of the components of an utterance.

For example, in the utterance “Faeder ure swa eart in heofenum” [Our Father who art in heaven] the words ‘father’ [subject] ‘our’ [adjective] ‘art’ [verb, present tense] and ‘heaven’ [adverb] all have endings which indicate their grammatical function.

As the modern English version demonstrates, these inflections are no longer in existence. The only remaining inflection in English is the possessive ‘s’ in a phrase such as ‘Jennifer’s Diary’.

The transition from ‘strong’ to ‘weak’. During the Anglo-Saxon period, most English verbs were ‘strong ‘ which means that the word changed radically when expressed in the past tense.

The technical definition of a strong verb is ‘one which changes its stem vowel in the preterite.’

Currently, English has a few remaining strong verbs: ‘ride’ which becomes ‘rode’ in the past; ‘strive’ which becomes ‘strove’; ‘come’ which becomes ‘came’; and ‘lie’ which becomes ‘lay’.

The majority of English verbs are classified as ‘weak’. Weak in this context is a purely grammatical term and it relates to the fact that most verbs can be expressed in the past tense by the addition of a dental ending – the final sound in ‘slept’, ‘jumped’ or ‘mended’.

It seems that eventually all verbs will follow the same trend and that all strong verbs will become weak.

Strong nouns are those which do not become plural by the addition of the sound ‘s’ or ‘es’ in the plural. The plurals of nouns such as ‘mouse’ ‘sheep’ ‘narcissus’ and ‘ox’ are ‘mice’, ‘sheep’, ‘narcissi’, and ‘oxen’. These are all examples of the few remaining strong nouns in English. Speculation has it that these items will eventually follow the trend in which strong becomes weak.

Lexical change. Vocabulary changes much more rapidly than does the grammar of any language.

Grammatical changes have occurred during the course of centuries, whereas a new word phrase or lexical form may enter the language during a matter of only weeks.

This is because of the relatively superficial significance of lexis compared with the radical function of grammar in a language. Grammar is the basic working system or structure, and as such must remain constant for the perpetuation of the language.

Some of the mechanisms for lexical change are as follows:

coinagemaking up new terms, such as ‘wordprocessor’ and ‘skateboard’
ameliorationa word acquires a new positive meaning, as for instance ‘naughty’ used to mean ‘wicked’ but now means ‘mischievous’
pejorationa word acquires a new negative meaning, as for instance ‘wicked’ is now used as a slang term to mean ‘exciting’ whereas it used to mean ‘cruel’
borrowingtaking a word from another language, as for instance ‘restaurant’ [French] ‘patio’ [Spanish] ‘verandah’ [Indian]
eliminationterms being discarded from regular use, as for instance ‘tithing’ [giving a tenth of your earnings to the church]

Language efficiency. Language as a system is very efficient at adapting to new circumstances and incorporating new phenomena.

For instance, information technology has recently developed very rapidly. The English language has generated many terms by which to describe the new phenomena. Terms such as ‘floppy disk’, ‘on-line’, ‘Internet’, and ’email’ did not exist thirty years ago.

In the world of politics, the term ‘doughnutting’ is used to describe the practice of MPs crowding together for the benefit of the TV camera. This is a new term for a new phenomenon.

The term ‘road rage’ is now used to express violence and aggression among drivers. In this case however it is not the phenomenon which is new, but social attitudes towards it. This in itself has been the trigger for linguistic innovation.

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Language variety – how to understand it

September 14, 2009 by Roy Johnson

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Language variety – definition

The term language variety is used to describe the many manifestations of the English language.

These varieties are derived according to functional principles.

That is, they stem from an observation of how English is used in a variety of contexts.

Examples

Speech and writing are the two main varieties of English.

These can then be broken down into sub-varieties as follows:

SPEECH

Occupational medical, nautical, political, legal

Informal chat with friends or family

Formal job interview, dialogue with doctor

Dialects Standard English, American English, regional dialect

Accents Received Pronunciation, Lancashire accent, American accent

WRITING

Occupational academic, commerce, legal

Informal note to friends or family

Formal job application, letter to doctor

Dialects Standard English, American English

Literature novel, poetry, drama, story

Use

Many varieties of English are used by everyone in the course of a normal day.

‘Style-switching’ is the term applied to the competent use of these linguistic varieties.

That is, we might use a casual, informal style when speaking to someone at home, and a formal style when writing to the bank manager.

The concept of language varieties is useful mainly as a tool for stylistic analysis.

It should be regarded as one of many possible aspects of language study.

In the context of language study, all varieties of English have potentially equal value or status.

Analysis of style demands an appreciation of the linguistic features which make up a given variety.

Written legal language, for example will have some or all of the following features:

minimal punctuation
use of archaic vocabulary or idioms
deviant use of capital letters
archaic script style and (sometimes) illuminated initial letters

These can be seen as the critical stylistic features of the legal variety of written English.

Identification or definition of a variety is not always a straightforward matter.

Journalism is considered by some as a variety of English. Others would argue that the term is not usefully applied in this case because of the diverse forms [reports, letters, jokes, pictures, announcements] which go into a journalistic product such as a newspaper.

This diversity of form and styles negates the usefulness of the application of variety to this particular function.

Legal language, by contrast, has far fewer possible diversities and therefore is a more clearly defined as a variety.

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Metaphors – how to understand them

September 9, 2009 by Roy Johnson

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Metaphors – definition

Metaphors are figures of speech in which one thing is compared to another — either directly or by implication.

Examples

Common metaphors in speech:

Those people are the salt of the earth.
She worked her fingers to the bone.
It was a real pea soup morning.
They were inundated with orders.

Well known literary metaphors:

Now is the winter of our discontent
Life’s but a walking shadow
I am the way, the truth and the life
The girl with kaleidoscope eyes

Use

A metaphor often demands that the listener or reader make a powerful leap of the imagination.

Some metaphors are commonly recognised whilst others are uniquely and even spontaneously created.

Imaginative writing such as poetry, prose, and drama often create their special effects by use of metaphor.

Metaphors are often used in advertising and in political speeches.

One important feature of metaphor is that a significant and comprehensive image may be created by a few key words.

A metaphor can be created by the article, noun, verb, adjective or any other part of speech.

NB! In a metaphor two things are said to be the same, whereas in a simile they are only like each other.

It’s useful to see the concept of metaphor as part of a scale which runs from the literal to the non-literal use of language.

A literal statement is one which refers to the actual material world in plain terms. For instance — ‘This table is made of wood’.

At the other extreme, and in the words of a popular song, we find the statement:

‘The sun is a big yellow duster, polishing the blue, blue sky’

This makes a much bigger demand on our imagination and on our willingness to step outside the rational, literal world.

This metaphor can be analysed as follows. The sun is being compared to a duster. This idea is interesting because dusters are often yellow like the sun. Further, just as the sun appears to move in the sky, removing grey clouds, a duster moves to polish a surface and clear it of dust. In the context of a pop song, the idea is witty and entertaining in a lighthearted way.

Contrast this more serious metaphor:

Now does he feel
His filthy murders sticking on his hands

This is from Macbeth. The image is extremely vivid as the murderer’s sense of guilt is conveyed to the audience by combining the abstract guilt and the material sticky blood.

Metaphor is extremely economic communication. Several layers of meaning can be conveyed at the same time.

Advertisers make effective use of metaphor and other images because they have a restricted amount of space, and this space is very costly. A phrase such as ‘the sunshine breakfast’ is more effective than a statement which might read: ‘Have our cereal for your breakfast and you’ll enjoy it. It will give you energy and nutrition because the corn’s been grown in a sunny climate.’

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Metonymy – how to understand it

September 9, 2009 by Roy Johnson

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Metonymy – definition

Metonymy is a figure of speech in which an attribute or a suggestive word is substituted for the name of something.

Examples

Metonym Thing represented

The Stage the acting profession

Shakespeare the plays of Shakespeare

The Crown the monarchy

Whitehall the civil service

Metonym	Thing represented
The Stage	the acting profession
Shakespeare	the plays of Shakespeare
The Crown	the monarchy
Whitehall	the civil service

Use

Metonymy is part of everyday speech. It is usually used quite unconsciously.

It is often used in imaginative writing such as fiction and poetry to clarify and enhance an image.

NB! If you find it difficult to remember the difference between metonymy and synecdoche — you’re not alone.

Metonymy can be seen as a specific kind of symbolism by which the most essential component of the subject is abstracted to represent it. This component acts as a single symbol for something larger and usually more complex.

For instance, a crown is the most essential material component of the trappings of royalty, and so it serves well in representing the whole system of monarchy.

Similarly, the stage is a material component of acting as a profession. This too serves to represent symbolically something abstract and dynamic.

The ‘cloth’ symbolises the religious profession, and the ‘bar’ represents the legal profession. Both these items are essential material objects and are used to refer to the abstract concept of a profession.

In a statement such as ‘Shakespeare depicts monarchs as human’ the name is actually symbolising the total collection of his works. This form of metonymy is useful as a very graphic kind of shorthand.

This pragmatic explanation could also apply to the example of ‘Whitehall announced today …’, although we could ascribe more political and even ulterior functions to this usage. [Remember, ‘Whitehall’ represent the civil service in the UK.]

To refer to Whitehall as having issued a statement is to generalise the source of the communication. This may be in the political interest of the Establishment. It is a form of social control to promote an image of a corporate mass of civil servants, rather than suggesting that one person or even a small hierarchical group makes significant and powerful decisions.

Whitehall as a material location stands for something abstract, in this case an institution. This symbolic use depersonalises the source of the statement, perhaps thereby giving it more authority.

This political interpretation is merely speculation, but the mechanical analysis of metonymy as a symbolic device stands on firmer ground.

[Pedants who collect terms enjoy distinguishing metonymy from synechdoche, which is its figurative bedfellow.]

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Morphology – how to understand it

September 9, 2009 by Roy Johnson

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Morphology – definition

Morphology is the study of meaning in individual units of language.

It is concerned with the structure of words.

The smallest unit of meaning is a morpheme.

Morphemes can be classified as either free or bound.

Examples

A free morpheme is a unit of meaning which can stand alone or alongside another free or bound morpheme.

These are usually individual words, such as

lid

sink

air

car

A bound morpheme is a unit of meaning which can only exist alongside a free morpheme.

These are most commonly prefixes and suffixes:

ungrateful		insufficient
childish		goodness

Use

A knowledge of morphology creates an awareness of meaning at a sub-lexical level. That is, we can deconstruct a word and consider its component parts.

The stems, roots, prefixes, and suffixes of words can be recognised. This can throw light on etymology (the origins of the word) thus giving us more power to communicate efficiently.

NB! The term comes from the Greek word morph, meaning shape or form.

Free morphemes are units of meaning which cannot be split into anything smaller, as in the following examples:

tree		gate		pillow
butter		flower		rhinoceros

However, the terms ‘gate’, ‘butter’ and ‘flower’ can also exist alongside another free morpheme. The following examples comprise two free morphemes

gatepost

buttermilk

sunflower

Bound morphemes are also units of meaning which cannot be split into anything smaller. However, they are different from free morphemes because they cannot exist alone. They must be bound to one or more free morphemes. Almost all prefixes and suffixes are bound morphemes.

Prefixes		asymmetrical, subordinate unnecessary, empower

Suffixes		cowardice, minty fruitful, swimming

The following words are made up of two free morphemes or components which could stand alone and retain their meaning.

inkwell		mothball
sunflower		slapstick

Note that morphemes can only be classified according to their given semantic context.

Take for example the word ‘elephant’ which is a free morpheme. Although it is a lengthy word, it cannot be split up into any smaller units of meaning within this particular context. That is, the word ‘elephant’ refers to a large grey mammal with a trunk and tusks which is indigenous to India and Africa.

The final three letters of elephant may spell ‘ant’, but that unit of meaning does not exist in the context of the term ‘elephant’.

Now take the word ‘ant’ as a separate unit of meaning referring to a small insect. In that context ‘ant’ is a free morpheme. Add another free morpheme in the form of ‘hill’ and we have a word comprising two free morphemes – ‘anthill’.

The unit ‘ant’ can also be classified separately as a bound morpheme in yet another context. The term ‘ant’ can act as a prefix in the word ‘antacid’. As such, it is a bound morpheme because its meaning only exists in conjunction with the free morpheme ‘acid’.

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Nouns – how to use them correctly

September 11, 2009 by Roy Johnson

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Nouns – definition

Nouns are the words we use for the names of objects, feelings, states of being, natural things, and groups.

Examples

objects	lamp, hat, gate, spoon, book
feelings	joy, sadness, fear, anger
states of being	confusion, agreement, war
natural things	thunder, electricity, gravity, speed
groups	herd, pack, catalogue, crowd

Use

We went to town and bought a lamp

The joy she felt was clear for all to see.

The trouble was caused by a power failure.

Thunder could be heard from a distance of three miles.

The cow with the curly horn was the most spectacular of the herd.

Nouns constitute much of the content of both speech and writing. They can usefully be categorised as follows:

Common nouns
Proper nouns
Abstract nouns

Common nouns. This is the term for objects such as ‘book’, ‘coat’, ‘window’, ‘apple’, ‘man’, ‘woman’.

Proper nouns. This is the term for names of people, places, days of the week, months of the year. Proper nouns are written with an initial capital letter:

John Smith	November
Tuesday	Buckingham Palace

Abstract nouns. This is the term for feelings such as ‘anger’, ‘joy’, ‘fear’, ‘sadness’, and for other intangible phenomena such as ‘beauty’, ‘philosophy’, ‘gravity’, ‘humour’.

Plurals of nouns are formed in a variety of ways in English.

Speech. Many nouns are made plural by the addition of a voiced /z/ or voiceless /s/ sibilant or ‘s’ sound as in tins /z/ mats /s/ sweets /s/ cows /z/

Writing. In writing the examples above would be pluralised by the simple addition of the letter ‘s’.

Other nouns require an extra syllable to form a plural, according to their use in speech or writing.

Speech. The plural of the terms ‘house’, ‘ostrich’, and ‘entrance’ are formed as follows:

hou/z/e/z/

ostrich/e/z/

entrance/z/

Writing. The written form of these plurals is constructed by adding the letter ‘s’ — except in the case of ‘ostrich’ where ‘e’ and ‘s’ are added.

In these cases, the written version is echoing the spoken word where, for ease of articulation, a vowel sound is added when forming the plural.

Irregular plurals. English has many words which are borrowings from other languages. The result of this is a number of irregular plurals:

SINGULAR	PLURAL
analysis	analyses
crisis	crises
appendix	appendices
narcissus	narcissi
amoeba	amoebae

English also has compounds such as the following, called ‘plurals in the first element’:

mothers-in-law	[not mother-in-laws]
spoonsful	[not spoonfuls]
passers-by	[not passer-byes]
courts-martial	[not court-martials]

However, there are also examples of the converse. That is, where the plural is formed in the final element in terms such as:

girlfriends

grownups

takeoffs

Archaic plurals. Some plurals are formed by the addition of ‘en’, because of the origin of the word in Old English:

children

oxen

brethren

The term ‘chicken’ is the archaic plural of the word ‘chick’. Over the centuries however, it has come to stand for the singular. The plural is now formed by the addition of a final ‘s’ in ‘chickens’.

Collective nouns. This is the term for one single term which refers to a group of items. Many English collective nouns refer to animals. For example, flock (sheep), brace (game-birds), set (badgers), pride (lions).

Terms such as ‘den’ (of robbers) ‘team’ (of players) ‘queue’ (of people) ‘party’ (of delegates) are also collective nouns.

Participles as nouns. Some nouns are formed from verb participles. For example, it is common to refer to ‘the cleaning’ which may be done weekly.

Film-makers used this form in producing The Shining, and houses are protected by various kinds of ‘cladding’.

Noun-phrases. These are utterances which may act as subject, object or predicate in a sentence. In other words they function exactly as a single noun, but they comprise more than one word.

Here are some examples, based on one common, single noun (book)

the book
the interesting book
the book on the shelf
the book which my friend gave me

All of these noun phrases could be used to start or to finish a sentence:

The book on the shelf is the one I was looking for in the first place.

John gave me the book on the shelf.

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Onomatopoeia – how to understand it

September 11, 2009 by Roy Johnson

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Onomatopoeia – definition

Onomatopoeia is a figure of speech in which the sound of a word echoes the thing it describes.

It is a form of symbolism in sound.

Examples

buzz	pop	bang
swish	cuckoo	hissing
burble	twitter	sizzle

Use

Onomatopoeia is used for emphasis or stylistic effect.

It is featured very heavily in children’s rhymes and poetry in general.

It is also used extensively in advertising, as in the slogan

‘Snap, crackle, pop!’

NB! ‘Onomatopoeia’ is derived from the Greek term ‘make a word’.

‘Onomatopoeia’ is the only example in English of a word which has a direct and intrinsic connection with the thing it describes.

For example, if we say that the boy made a ‘splash’ jumping into the pool, the noun ‘splash’ actually imitates the thing to which it refers.

‘Splash’ is not simply an arbitrary code for the sound made when someone jumps into a swimming pool. It is an aural echo of that very thing.

The very concrete nature of onomatopoeia needs to be stressed. This applies in most cases where a word imitates a sound which we all recognise.

The English language is a coded system in which most words have a completely arbitrary link with the object or state which they describe.

For example, the word ‘house’ is a code term for the building with rooms in which we live. Similarly, ‘fear’ is a four-letter code for the unpleasant sensation of acute apprehension. [These terms are quite different in other languages.]

Onomatopoeia is thus an exceptional case because the word has at least an aural similarity with the thing it describes.

Perhaps the original symbols which comprise a pictographic language such as Chinese can be seen as a useful visual analogy with onomatopoeia. Chinese characters derive from pictures of the things they describe. They therefore have an intrinsic connection with them, just as the English words such as ‘splash’ ‘plop’ ‘bang’ ‘tinkle’ are the auditory equivalent.

Studying onomatopoeia thus highlights the ideographic nature of English and to take this to a purist extreme, we see that even the most literal use of language is only literal in a relative sense because the words themselves are at a semantic distance from the thing to which they refer.

We learn to connect the word ‘house’ with the building we call home, but we take it completely on trust because there is no essential connection there between word and phenomenon.

The same principle applies to every unit of meaning except onomatopoeic words and for that reason alone onomatopoeia is of interest to linguists.

Animal calls are evoked onomatopoeically in all languages. For example ‘cock-a-doodle-do!’ is conventionally the English representation for the crowing of a cock. Interestingly, the French represent the same phenomenon as ‘cocorico!’, which is significantly different, although logic tells us that the rooster’s cry is constant across the world.

This variation in the representation of animal calls has helped researchers into language change to chart developments in the English language. In ancient poetry, for instance, if the word ‘go’ was rhymed with ‘cuckoo’, we could be fairly sure that the pronunciation of the word ‘go’ had changed rather than the birdsong.

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Oxymoron – how to understand it

September 11, 2009 by Roy Johnson

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Oxymoron – definition

Oxymoron is a figure of speech in which two incongruous or apparently contradictory words are combined to make a special effect.

An oxymoron is a contracted paradox.

Examples

He has a strong weakness for drink.
I’ll try the sweet and sour duck.
She is something of a cheerful pessimist
Their affair is an open secret.

Use

Oxymoron is used for emphasis or stylistic effect.

It’s often used in advertising.

NB! By the way, it’s pronounced ‘ox-ymoron’ — not ‘oxy-moron’.

The oxymoron is closely related to antithesis and paradox. Both of these are figures of speech.

An oxymoron is ‘a contracted paradox’. That is, the paradox is an apparently contradictory statement; whereas the contradiction in an oxymoron is reduced to just two antithetical terms.

It is the sort of playful and often witty effect used by those who wish to draw attention to their command of language.

The device is much-loved by poets, because it enables them to express complex ideas in a very compressed form:

Where grey-beard mirth and smiling toil retired
The toiling pleasure sickens into pain

[Oliver Goldsmith]

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