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Semantics – how to understand it

September 13, 2009 by Roy Johnson

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Semantics – definition

Semantics is a part of language studies which focuses on the meaning of what is spoken or written.

It can encompass whole items such as a lecture or an annual report, or the smallest unit of meaning.

Linguists do not regard the word as the smallest unit, but the components of a word which carry separate items of meaning.

The smallest unit of meaning in a language is called a morpheme.

Examples

Here are some examples of linguistic study which would fall under the title of semantics:

Stylistic analysis of the imagery used in a poem.
Analysis of point of view in a novel or short story.
A study of tragic themes in Shakespeare’s plays.
The study of approaches to translation.
Tracing the development of English nouns from the Anglo-Saxon period.

Use

The semantic level of a statement, whether it be spoken or written, can be seen as the reason for its existence.

Meaning develops and shifts constantly in any language, and semantic study is often an attempt to chart these changes, using the structure of the language as a yardstick.

The smallest unit of meaning is known as a morpheme. Words can be broken down according to their morphological make up.

For instance the word horse is a morpheme, because no smaller part of it can stand alone with any significant meaning.

The same would be true for words such as big, talk, and giraffe.

However the word horses is made up of two morphemes:

horse [the animal] + s [which expresses a plural].

So, even though it is only one letter, s can be a morpheme.

The following sequence shows how a word of one morpheme can become part of a word with two, then three, then four morphemes or separate units of meaning.

attract 1 morpheme

attract/ive 2 morphemes

un/attract/ive 3 morphemes

un/attract/ive/ly 4 morphemes

However, where the semantic additions to the words are prefixes [un] and suffixes [ive] and [ly], they are called bound, rather than free morphemes.

In other words, the semantic additions could not stand alone as units of meaning in the same way as the free morpheme [attract] can.

We can find words made up of one or more free morphemes — such as mantel/piece.

Alternatively, they might be made up of one or more free morphemes and one or more bound morphemes — such as ir/regular or dough/nut/ting.

A word can only be split up into separate morphemes when at least one of the semantic units can stand alone.

Compare the two following examples:

preposterous 1 free morpheme

un/grateful 1 bound + 1 free morpheme

The meaning of words is not absolutely fixed. New meanings can be attributed to words if enough people use them. Alternatively, meanings can be ‘lost’. This phenomenon is known as ‘semantic shift’.

The word ‘gay’ for example, has changed its meaning radically during the past twenty years. The word itself remains, but it has undergone a semantic shift. It’s like using the same box for a changed content.

Sometimes words can ‘disappear’ from use [even though they might remain in a dictionary]. Most people know and use the word unequal, but very few would know that English once had the term inequal for the same purpose. It is now merely a historical curiosity.

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Semicolons – how to use them

September 13, 2009 by Roy Johnson

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Semicolons – definition

The semicolon [ ; ] marks a long pause in a sentence.

It is half way between a comma and a colon.

Examples

Neither of us spoke; we merely waited to see what would happen.

He usually took great care; even so he made a few errors.

Four objects lay on the desk: a large book; a spiral-bound notepad; a glass vase containing flowers; and a silver propelling pencil.

Use

Semicolons are used between clauses which could stand alone, but which are closely related.

They are also used to punctuate lists in continuous prose writing.

NB! If you’re in any doubt about the semicolon – don’t use it.

The semicolon marks a pause which is longer than a comma, but not as long as a colon. This is a subtle distinction.

It is most commonly used between clauses which could be expressed as separate sentences, but which have some logical connection.

For instance, in the following example there could be a full stop after ‘England’:

Rutland was formerly the smallest county in England; no other area in the land was famous for so little.

The semicolon is used to avoid ambiguity in sentences composed of phrases of different length and a mixed content:

The Chairman welcomed the President, Dr Garvey; the Vice-President Mr Barncroft and his wife; several delegates from the United States; and members of the public who had been invited to attend.

Because the semicolon may be used instead of a full stop, some people use it without discrimination. They connect clause after clause with semicolons where no real link exists between them. This creates grammatical confusion and very poor style.

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Semicolons in essays

August 25, 2009 by Roy Johnson

sample from HTML program and PDF book

1. If you are in any doubt at all concerning the correct use of semicolons – then avoid using them entirely. They are the most commonly misused and misunderstood mark of punctuation.

2. It is perfectly possible to write clearly and effectively using only the comma and the full stop. Do this if you are in any doubt about the use of the semicolon (and the colon).

3. Remember that the semicolon represents a pause which is longer than a comma but shorter than a full stop (and a colon). It is normally used to separate clauses which could stand alone, but which are closely related.

4. It is used when the second clause expands or explains the first:

Neither of us spoke; we merely waited patiently in silence to see what would happen next.

5. It is used when the clauses describe a sequence of actions or different aspects of the same topic:

There was a sharp, bracing air; the ground beneath us was dry; the sea was calm and clear.

6. It is used before clauses which begin with ‘nevertheless’, ‘therefore’, ‘even so’, and ‘for instance’:

He usually took great care; even so he made a few errors.

7. It is used to mark off a series of phrases or clauses which themselves contain commas:

For this exercise you will need the following materials: some scrap paper; a pen, preferably blue or black; some A4 envelopes; and some good, white, unlined writing paper.

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Sentences – how to use them correctly

September 13, 2009 by Roy Johnson

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Sentences – definition

A sentence is a group of words which is usually a grammatically complete statement.

It is often the expression of a thought.

In writing, sentences should begin with a capital letter and end with a full stop.

Examples

Command Keep left.

Question Is James joining us for breakfast?

Statement Smoking can damage your health.

A normal sentence in English usually contains at least three elements: a subject, a verb, and an object.

Subject Verb Object

The cat ate the goldfish

My friend wants your address

Some sheep have black fleece

Subject	Verb	Object
The cat	ate	the goldfish
My friend	wants	your address
Some sheep	have	black fleece

Use

The sentence is a unit of meaning in both speech and writing.

We speak in sentences automatically from the time we first acquire language.

A sentence is defined as a grammatically complete unit, but it might need other sentences around it to make its meaning clear.

Constructing written sentences may be difficult. This is a skill which has to be learned.

Written sentences may be very short [‘Jesus wept’] or very long, but their underlying structure must follow grammatical conventions.

NB! Short sentences help to create clear expression. Keep them short. Keep them simple.

There are various kinds of sentences – simple, complex, and compound.

A simple sentence is one which contains phrases rather than clauses. A simple sentence contains one subject and one object or predicate. For example:

Subject Verb Predicate

I am the head of this department.

We won last Saturday’s match.

Jean is in the house.

Subject	Verb	Predicate
I	am	the head of this department.
We	won	last Saturday’s match.
Jean	is	in the house.

In all the examples above, when the subject is removed we are left with a phrase – an utterance which has no finite verb.

The expressions ‘in the house’, ‘last Saturday’s match’, and ‘the head of this department’, are all phrases not clauses.

A complex sentence contains one or more subordinate clauses. In the examples which follow, the subordinate clause is emphasised.

The suspect denied that he had been in the neighbourhood.

You won’t persuade me to stay no matter how hard you try.

Despite the fact that I had ordered the meal, I left the restaurant when I saw him arrive.

I went out shopping, although it was raining, and bought a basket of fruit.

In all these examples, the removal of the main clause leaves another clause (an utterance with a finite verb) and not a phrase.

A compound sentence is one in which contains two or more co-ordinating parts.

It’s starting to rain // and I have left my deck-chair outside.

The film we saw last night // was interesting and enjoyable.

We have no red towels // but we have plenty of green ones.

The following terms can be used to classify types of sentences by their function.

A statement – grammatically defined by the position of the subject immediately before the verb:

The pen is mightier than the sword.

A question – grammatically defined by the initial element being ‘how’, ‘what’, ‘when’, ‘where’, or ‘why’:

How many spoons are in that box?

A command – grammatically defined by the initial positioning of the verb:

Go to the bus stop and wait for your father.

An exclamation – grammatically defined by an initial ‘what’, ‘how’, and the rest of the utterance being in statement form:

What a pity it’s raining for our picnic!

It is possible to have meaningful sentences which do not have all three normal elements:

[Subject – Verb – Object]

In such cases, any missing part is usually implied –

‘[I] thankyou’.

Many people lose grammatical control of their sentences because they use:

features from speech
conversational style
badly linked phrases
vague punctuation
faulty syntax

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Sentences in essays

August 25, 2009 by Roy Johnson

sample from HTML program and PDF book

1. Short, clear, and simple sentences are usually more effective than those which are long and complex. Avoid piling up clause upon clause. In the majority of essays, you should aim for clarity and simplicity in your written style. If in doubt, remember this rule: Keep it short. Keep it simple.

2. Punctuate your work firmly, making a clear distinction in your writing between marks such as the comma, the semicolon, and the full stop.

3. Remember that all sentences without exception must begin with a capital letter and end with a full stop.

4. Remember that the common word order (syntax) of a simple sentence written in English is as follows:

subject – verb – object

The cat eats the goldfish
Elephants like grass
We are the best team

If you are in any doubt at all, follow this pattern. Sentences which go out of grammatical control often lack one of these elements, or they have them placed in a different order.

5. You should avoid starting sentences with words such as ‘Again’, ‘Although’, ‘But’, ‘And’, ‘Also’, and ‘With’. These words are called conjunctions, which normally belong in the ‘middle’ of a sentence, not at its beginning. Sentences which begin with a conjunction are very often left grammatically incomplete.

6. Remember that speech and writing are two different forms of communication. Avoid the use of a casual or conversational style when writing. For instance don’t string together clauses which are grammatically unrelated. This is quite normal in speech, but it should be avoided in formal writing.

7. What follows is an example of a statement which has too many unrelated clauses, which goes on too long, and which eventually skids out of grammatical control.

Less smoking would undoubtedly lead to redundancies in the tobacco industry, a consequent rise in the number of unemployed, more people dependent upon State benefits to be supported by a government with subsequently reduced income.

8. The same arguments can be expressed far more clearly and effectively by splitting them up into two separate and shorter sentences. (I have also made one or two minor changes to enhance the sense.)

Less smoking would undoubtedly lead to redundancies in the tobacco industry and a consequent rise in the number of unemployed. More people would then become dependent upon State benefits, which would have to be paid out by a government with a reduced income.

9. Most problems in sentence construction are caused by two or three closely related factors:

The sentence is much too long.
Too many unrelated clauses.
The sentence starts with its verb or object, rather than the subject.
The sentence start with a conjunction (‘although’, ‘because’).

10. The solution to this problem is worth repeating:

Keep it short. Keep it simple.

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Signposting in essays

August 25, 2009 by Roy Johnson

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1. In most essays (up to 3000 words) you should avoid ‘signposting’ your argument. That is, you do not need to use expressions such as

‘Later in this essay I will be discussing…’
‘Let us now go on to consider…’
‘As I demonstrated earlier…’
‘We will now turn to evaluate another example…’

2. Just state clearly the point of your arguments and leave them to speak for themselves, uncluttered by any direction indicators. You do not need to offer a commentary on what you have already said, or what you will be saying later. In a well-planned essay, this progression should be self-evident from the arrangement of your work.

3. A sound essay plan and a coherent structure will reveal the logic of your argument and the relationship of its parts. If you have, for instance, four main topics to discuss, simple state clearly what those topics are, then deal with them separately, one after the other.

4. Each new topic should be clearly identified or defined as soon as you begin dealing with it. This statement will provide all the indication needed of your intentions. Remember that each paragraph should deal with just one principal stage or item of your argument. Each new topic requires a separate paragraph.

5. If you wish to some light indication of structure, it is perfectly acceptable to use formulations such as

‘The first reason … The second…’
‘On one hand … on the other…’
‘However, the main argument against this is…’

These statements will demonstrate that you have control of your argument.

6. Remember that although an essay may take many hours to write, it will only take a few minutes to read. Signposting is only necessary in very long pieces of work. Even then, skillful writers will integrate any direction indicators into their work as unobtrusively as possible.

7. The conventions on signposting may vary slightly from one subject to another. In some of the sciences it is necessary to announce in advance what you will be writing about. However, these pieces of work are likely to be closer to experimental reports than continuous prose arguments.

8. Similarly, in some branches of psychology or linguistics, students may sometimes be required to offer a meta-critique of a written assignment. They will be expected to describe what they are writing. This is to demonstrate their awareness of the processes in which they are engaged.

9. With these few exceptions, you should not normally comment on the manner in which you have written an essay. Your tutor doesn’t need to know in what order you assembled your evidence, or what difficulties you encountered during its composition. Some students try to disarm possible criticism by announcing in advance how difficult the question was to answer. Your tutor will already know its degree of difficulty, and doesn’t need to be told again.

10. However, you may wish to argue that the question raises a certain number of difficulties or crucial issues. This is acceptable – so long as you say what they are. You should then go on to discuss their relevance to the subject in question, and maybe even suggest some answers to them.

11. The conventions on signposting in report writing are different. Reports are normally written to a pre-determined structure or set of headings. These provide the sequence of events which in a conventional essay have to be constructed by the author.

12. A report of an investigation or an experiment will also have its own sequence of events, so it will be quite acceptable to use expressions such as ‘First the X was added to the Y … and then Z occurred … The results were then analysed and are shown in Table One’.

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Similes – how to understand them

September 13, 2009 by Roy Johnson

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Similes – definition

A simile is a figure of speech in which one thing is directly compared with another.

The comparison is usually signalled by the use of the terms ‘as’ or ‘like’ or ‘such as’.

Examples

He was as strong as a lion

It shot out like a bullet

“Music is such sweet thunder”

Use

Similes are part of everyday speech. They may be used consciously or unconsciously.

They are often used in imaginative writing such as fiction and poetry to clarify and enhance an image.

NB! To say that a girl looks like Marilyn Monroe is not a simile. That’s because two similar things are being directly equated to each other.

But to say that ‘My heart is like a singing bird’ is a simile. That’s because the two things being likened to each other are quite different – and so an imaginative comparison is being made.

A simile requires less of an imaginative leap than does a metaphor. A simile states that A is like B, whereas a metaphor suggests that A actually is B.

The simile is one common component of imagery. This is the process of evoking ideas, people, places, feelings and various other connections in a vivid and effective way.

Imagery is used in both written and spoken communication in many varieties of form, from advertising to poetry and from chatting to speech-making.

Simile, metaphor, and symbol are the main types of image making. The result is that communication acquires a creative and vital quality which somehow springs from the essential act of comparison.

So, a raindrop can become a crystal, fear can become an abyss, and jealousy a monster.

By employing imagery, we interpret the material world and use language to transmit our vision.

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Slang – how to understand it

September 13, 2009 by Roy Johnson

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Slang – definition

Slang is sometimes described as ‘the language of sub-cultures’ or ‘the language of the streets’.

It is a term for words or expressions used by small groups of people.

It tends to be vivid and colourful, and holds a delicate position between the colloquial and the vulgar.

Examples

MONEY	dough, lolly, spondulicks
FOOD	grub, nosh, scoff
DRINK	sloshed, smashed, plastered
SEX	nookey, the other, crumpet

Use

Slang is used in everyday informal speech amongst members of the same group.

It can often act as a ‘code’ which excludes outsiders.

Linguistically, it can be usefully seen as a sub-dialect.

It is hardly used at all in writing — except for stylistic effect.

Today’s slang can be tomorrow’s Standard English.

NB! Slang may also date very quickly, like fashion in clothes. Yesterday’s slang can become today’s cliché.

Eric Partridge [an authority on the subject] identifies a number of reasons for the creation and use of slang:

to be different, startling, or original
to display one’s membership of a group or club
to be secretive or to exclude others
to enrich the stock of language
to establish a friendly rapport with others
to be irreverant or humorous

Cockney rhyming slang is well known throughout the English speaking population. It is a very stylised form of slang which consists of two main elements:

the item being referred to — ‘tea’ for instance
a pair of words of which the latter rhymes with the referent — ‘Rosie Lee’

Thus ‘tea’ becomes ‘Rosie Lee’ [names are often used].

To make matters more complex, the rhyming word is often omitted. Thus the Cockney slang utterance is abbreviated, so that the listener may hear ‘Make us a cup of Rosie.’

This practice of omitting the rhyming word creates more interest in the usage, making it into a kind of conundrum or a word game.

Here are some examples of well-known rhyming slang.

‘Time to go up the apples to bed.’
[Apples and pears = stairs]

‘How do you like my new whistle?’
[Whistle and flute = suit]

‘Let’s have a butcher’s.’
[Butcher’s hook = look]

It was once thought that rhyming slang was dying out, but the recent fashion for using celebrity names has proved this not to be true – as in Garry Glitter = ‘pint of bitter’, abbreviated to a Garry of course. The alternative might be to order a couple of Britneys (Spears).

Some forms of slang change very rapidly, for various reasons.

Teenage slang changes rapidly because people are teenagers for a short period of time. For example, in the early 1990s the term used to express enthusiastic approval was ‘Ace’. Now this would be considered rather dated. It has been replaced by ‘Sound’ — which itself will soon be supplanted by whatever the current teenage culture decides is appropriate.

‘Smashing!’ and ‘Super!’ the teenage slang of Enid Blyton stories of the 1930s and 1940s is now used to parody the period and the attitudes from which they sprang. Intrinsically however, it is no different from today’s terms.

One important function of teenage slang is to create an identity which is distinct from the general adult world. Teenagers for this reason do not generally approve of parents or teachers using their slang terms. This defeats the object of what is essentially a group ‘code’.

Thus new terms are generated every couple of years. It is interesting that the main slang items are adjectives for extreme approval or extreme disapproval.

The criminal culture has even more reason to refer in slang terms to the key elements of its activities. This is why there are so many terms for illegal substances. ‘Weed’, ‘draw’, and ‘whacky backy’ are just some of the slang terms for marijuana.

‘Exstasy’ is a slang term which has now been adopted into Standard English. This is probably because the chemical term is too complex or difficult to pronounce.

This process can also occur in reverse. For instance the term ‘muck’ is now slang, but it used to be a Standard English word meaning mud or outdoor dirt.

The most important lesson regarding the concept of slang is that like all other parts of the language, it is in process. Cockney rhyming slang has stayed with us probably because of its creative and almost poetic element. Also, because of its formulaic nature, Cockney slang can continue to be generated according to the formula, suiting a variety of linguistic purposes.

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Speech – how it differs from writing

September 13, 2009 by Roy Johnson

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Speech – definition

Speech is the universal means of oral communication.

It distinguishes humans from the rest of the animal kingdom.

Speech (not writing) is considered by linguists as the primary material for study.

Examples

German, Italian, French, Spanish, are all varieties of European languages.

Legal, religious, medical, and technical language are all varieties of spoken occupational jargon.

There are many varieties of spoken language, many of which are used even on an individual basis.

Use

Speech is innately acquired — unlike writing, which is a skill which has to be learned.

Speech is used constantly by everyone for a variety of functions, from the passing of information to the sharing of emotions.

There are no designated human speech organs, but respiratory and digestive organs are adapted to produce speech.

The pharynx is purely the sound box, shared by other animal species, primarily designed to produce mating, warning, and herding calls.

Speech and writing are two separate systems and an individual’s linguistic competence depends on the ability to make a clear distinction between the two.

NB! In linguistic study, speech is primary.

Speech normally contains hesitations, repetitions, and grammatical ‘errors’. It contains lots of ‘ums’ and ers’, and all sorts of sounds which have no connection with writing as a means of communication.

Speech is normally accompanied by many other non-verbal features which affect communication — such as intonation and stress, facial expressions, physical gestures, and even bodily posture.

In the study of language, speech is considered primary and as a system which is entirely separate from writing.

Children who are learning to write often confuse the two. They produce a written form of speech.

Maturity is demonstrated by the ability to use a literary style which is completely discrete and separate from speech.

Humans acquire speech due to their innate programming. Writing on the other hand is a skill which must be learnt in the same way as driving, sewing, or cooking.

There are still some societies in the world which have no written form of language, but which depend entirely on speech.

Sign language, among the profoundly hearing-impaired, is a system which can perform all that a spoken language can in terms of communication. In this case, the hands are adapted instead of respiratory and digestive organs in order to communicate.

As far as Linguistics is concerned, there is no such thing as a primitive language. All languages are equal in potential, to perform any communication task required by its users.

The organs used in speech are as follows:

lips teeth tongue palate glottis

uvula nose trachea lungs pharynx

All children develop their ability to use language at approximately the same rate, despite the variations in nationality or circumstances.

In the process of a child’s development, the acquisition of phonology, semantics and grammar progresses simultaneously.

This continues until linguistic maturity is reached around the age of seven. After this, an individual’s linguistic competence varies according to training, environment, and perceived necessity.

This development runs as follows:

Months Sounds

00—03 non-linguistic vocalisations

03—06 babbling

06—09 beginnings of recognisable speech sounds

09—12 one-word sentences such as ‘dada’

Months	Sounds
00—03	non-linguistic vocalisations
03—06	babbling
06—09	beginnings of recognisable speech sounds
09—12	one-word sentences such as ‘dada’

By the age of seven years all the phonological sounds of the language have been acquired.

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Spelling checkers used for essays

August 25, 2009 by Roy Johnson

sample from HTML program and PDF book

1. Most word-processors have spelling checkers these days. You should use the checker before printing out your documents. This should form part of your regular editing procedures.

2. Checking your work with a spell-checker will help to highlight and correct commonly mis-spelt words such as ‘accommodation’, ‘parallel’, ‘recommend’, and ‘silhouette’.

3. The checker will also highlight mis-keyed words such as ‘hte’ for ‘the’ or ‘nad’ for ‘and’. You may either choose the correct word from a list, or the processor may offer you the opportunity to reverse the mis-keyed letters. [The latest even perform this function automatically.]

4. It will not be able to recognise specialist terms and unusual proper nouns – names such as Schumacher, Derrida, or Nabokov. These will not be in the processor’s memory. You will have to check the correct spelling of these yourself, as you would do with any other unusual words.

5. Remember that a spell-checker will not alert you to a mistake if you write ‘They washed there own clothes’ instead of ‘They washed their own clothes’. That’s because the word ‘there’ is spelt correctly even though it is being used ungrammatically in this sentence. The same would be true of ‘It is over hare’ instead of ‘It is over here’. That’s because ‘hare’ exists in its own right as a correctly spelt word.

6. Most spell-checkers will spot unwanted double words such as ‘going to to the fair’, and will offer you the opportunity to delete the second occurrence. But they will not notice anything wrong with a word broken by a space such as ‘to morrow’. That’s because these two terms exist in their own right as separate words.

7. The checker will not alert you to any mistake if you key the word ‘practice’ instead of ‘practise’, because both words exist separately. The same would be true of ‘advise’ and ‘advice’. [Most grammar-checkers will alert you to these common problems.]

8. If you decide to add to the processor’s memory names which are frequently used in your own subject discipline (Freud, Jung, Adler or Marx, Engels, Bukharin) make sure that you enter them correctly spelt.

9. Beware of adding too many names which might be thrown up in the checking of your document. Some proper nouns may be the same as mis-spelt words. If you were to add ‘Fischer’ to the dictionary as a name, this would mean that the spell-checker would not alert you to a problem if you mis-keyed ‘fisher’ as ‘fischer’.

10. Beware of adding to your processor’s dictionary just because it is easy and seems a profitable thing to do. You might for instance add your own postcode of ‘SE9 6OY’ – but if you then mis-keyed the word ‘TOY’ as ‘6OY’ the spell-checker would not then be able to pick up your mistake. It would assume that you wished to regard ‘6OY’ as an acceptable ‘word’.

11. A spell check is usually performed after all your text has been generated and edited. However, there are good arguments for using the checker at earlier stages. Layout and spacing might be affected; the document will be in a reasonably good condition at any given stage; and it may eliminate the necessity for a search and-replace procedure at a later stage.

12. Finally, here is a cautionary (and amusing) ditty which might help you to remember some of these points:

‘My New Spell Checker’

Eye halve a spelling chequer
It came with my pea sea
It plainly marques four my revue
Miss steaks eye kin knot sea.

Eye strike a key and type a word
And weight four it two say
Weather eye am wrong oar write
It shows me strait a weigh.

As soon as a mist ache is maid
It nose bee fore two long
And eye can put the error rite
Its rare lea ever wrong.

Eye have run this poem threw it
I am shore your pleased two no
Its letter perfect awl the weigh
My chequer tolled me sew.

[Sauce unknown]

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Semantics – definition

Examples

Use

free pages from our English Language software program

Semicolons – definition

Examples

Use

sample from HTML program and PDF book

free pages from our English Language software program

Sentences – definition

Examples

Use

sample from HTML program and PDF book

sample from HTML program and PDF book

free pages from our English Language software program

Similes – definition

Examples

Use

free pages from our English Language software program

Slang – definition

Examples

Use

free pages from our English Language software program

Speech – definition

Examples

Use

sample from HTML program and PDF book

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