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Colons – how to use them

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free pages from our English Language software program

Colons – definition

colons Colons are used to introduce strong pauses within sentences.

redbtn The colon is the longest pause short of a full stop.

Examples

redbtn Colons are used to introduce lists:

The car has a number of optional extras: sun roof, tinted windows, rear seat belts, and electrically operated wing mirrors.

redbtn The colon separates two clauses which could stand alone as separate sentences, but which are linked by some relationship in meaning:

My brother likes oranges: my sister hates them.

redbtn The colon is also used before a long quotation or a speech:

Speaking at Caesar’s funeral, Anthony addresses the crowd: “Friends, Romans, countrymen …”

redbtn It is also used before a clause which explains the previous statement:

The school is highly regarded: academic standards are high, the staff are pleasant, and the students enjoy going there.

Use

redbtn The colon can be used to provide emphasis, or to create dramatic effect:

There can be only one reason for this problem: his total incompetence.

redbtn It is also used at the end of a statement which is followed by an illustration:

The vase contains beautiful flowers: roses, tulips, and daffodils.

redbtn NB! The colon followed by a dash (: —) is never necessary. The colon alone is sufficient, even before a list.

redbtn Notice that the items which follow a list are punctuated with commas if they are a succession of individual words.

You will need four ingredients: flour, butter, milk, and sugar.

redbtn If the items in the list contain clauses or phrases these may be punctuated with semicolons:

You will need the following materials: some scrap paper; a pen, preferably blue or black; some envelopes; and some good, white, unlined writing paper.

redbtn The colon requires careful handling. If you are in any doubt, use separate sentences.

redbtn The colon is also used between the title and the sub-title of a book:

Magical Realism: Latin-American fiction today.

Self-assessment quiz follows >>>

© Roy Johnson 2003

English Language 3.0 program
Books on language
More on grammar

Colons in essays

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sample from HTML program and PDF book

1. Colons in essays are marks of punctuation used to introduce a strong pause within a sentence. They separates two clauses which could stand alone as separate sentences but which are linked by some relationship in their meaning.

2. A colon is used to introduce a list:

The car has a number of optional extras: sun roof, tinted windows, rear seat belts, and electrically operated wing mirrors.

3. It normally precedes a long quotation or a speech:

Speaking at Caesar’s funeral, Anthony addresses the crowd: “Friends, Romans, countrymen …”

4. It is used before a clause which explains (often by way of illustration) the previous statement. It suggests the sense of ‘That is to say’ or ‘Namely’:

The school is highly regarded: academic standards are high, the staff are pleasant, and the students enjoy going there.

5. It is used to indicate a sharp contrast:

My brother likes oranges: my sister hates them.

6. Note that the colon followed by a dash (:—) is never necessary. Some people put these before a list, but the colon alone is sufficient.

7. The colon is also used between the title and the sub-title of a book:

Magical Realism: Latin-American fiction today.

8. Notice that the items which follow a list are punctuated with commas if they are a succession of individual words.

You will need four ingredients: flour, butter, milk, and sugar.

9. If the items in the list contain clauses or phrases these may be punctuated with semicolons:

You will need the following materials: some scrap paper; a pen, preferably blue or black; some envelopes; and some good, white, unlined writing paper.

10. The colon requires careful handling. If you are in any doubt, use separate sentences.

© Roy Johnson 2003

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Commas – how to use them

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free pages from our English Language software program

Commas – definition

commas Commas are used to show slight pauses in a sentence.

redbtn Commas are the lightest marks of punctuation.

Examples

He will never do it, whatever he says.
She bought some butter, a pint of milk, and some jam.
Cars should turn left here, whilst vans should turn right.

Use

redbtn The comma is used to separate words, clauses, or phrases in a sentence.

redbtn It is used to help clarify the sense of statements and to prevent ambiguity.
redbtn It is also used to separate the items in lists.

redbtn NB! Use commas to clarify meaning. Don’t scatter them around like confetti.

redbtn The comma is used to separate two clauses when the first is not closely associated with the second:

She is a famous singer, whilst her husband remains unknown.

redbtn It is used to introduce a pause where the eye might otherwise continue and mistake the sense of what is written:

In the valley below, the villages looked small.

redbtn It is used to separate a sequence of adjectives which qualify a noun:

He was an arrogant, pompous fellow.

redbtn However, when the adjectives are of a different order or type, no comma is necessary:

He was a distinguished foreign visitor.

redbtn The comma is used to mark the start and finish of a parenthetical phrase within a sentence:

I am quite sure, despite my reservations, that he’s the best man for the job.

redbtn A very common use for the comma is to separate the items in a list:

The box contained a book, some pencils, and a knife.

redbtn Opinions differ on the need for the final comma in such examples. If the items are all of the same kind, it can usually be omitted. If they are not, it is usually safer to retain the comma.

Self-assessment quiz follows >>>

© Roy Johnson 2003

English Language 3.0 program
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Commas in essays

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sample from HTML program and PDF book

1. Commas in essays are the least emphatic pause in normal punctuation. They mark a light hesitation or interruption in the sentence. The comma is used in a number of different grammatical instances.

2. To separate two clauses when the first is not closely associated with the second:

Cars should turn left here, whilst foot passengers should continue towards the exit.

3. To introduce a pause where the eye might otherwise continue and momentarily mistake the sense of what was written:

In the beautiful valley below, the villages looked very small.

4. To separate a sequence of adjectives which qualify a noun in the same manner:

He was an arrogant, loquacious man.

5. However, when the adjectives are of a different order or type, no comma is necessary:

He was a distinguished foreign visitor.

6. To separate items in a long list:

The box contained an old leather-bound book, a bottle, some pencils, and a gun.

7. Opinions vary on the necessity of the final comma in such examples. If the items are all of the same kind, there is probably little chance of ambiguity. If they are not, it is usually safer to retain the comma.

8. To mark the beginning and end of a parenthetical phrase within a sentence:

I am quite sure, despite all my reservations on the matter, that he is doing the right thing.

9. Confusion is sometimes sown by the insertion of commas where they are not really necessary. This is an example of bad usage:

The strangest of all these new sensations, was the onset of profound happiness.

10. Commas should not be used to connect separate sentences as a casual substitute for the full stop:

A party has been arranged, it will not take place until next week.

11. This is weak writing. The statement should be made either as two separate sentences, or if they are brought together because of their natural connection, a conjunction is required:

A party has been arranged, but it will not take place until next week.

12. Even though in some cases a comma may not be absolutely necessary for retaining grammatical coherence (as in the previous example), it may still be useful in order to clarify the meaning for a reader. Here’s another bad example.

Each night you stay at a Roberts-Plaza Moat Houses UK hotel at the fully published or corporate rate you are entitled to a special discount voucher.

13. This poorly phrased statement would be improved by the insertion of a comma after the word ‘rate’.

14. What follows is an example of an entire paragraph which has been punctuated using only the comma and the full stop. [It also illustrates, rather deftly, the function of the ‘topic sentence’.]

The central thought or main controlling idea of a paragraph is usually conveyed in what is called a topic sentence. This important sentence which states, summarises or clearly expresses the main theme, is the keystone of a well-built paragraph. The topic sentence may come anywhere in the paragraph, though most logically and in most cases it is the first sentence. This immediately tells readers what is coming, and leaves them in no doubt about the overall controlling idea. In a very long paragraph, the initial topic sentence may even be restated or given a more significant emphasis in its conclusion.

© Roy Johnson 2003

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Common essay problems

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… and how to overcome them

Essay problems – Relevance

1. Straying off the subject in question is one of the most common essay problem. There are several simple solutions.

2. Always write out the question accurately and in full on both your notes and your essay script.

3. Plan your essays carefully, consult the wording, and relate each part of your argument to the topic(s) in question.

4. At each stage of the argument, you should keep asking yourself ‘Is this relevant?’, ‘Am I answering the question?’, ‘Does this relate directly to the subject I have been asked to discuss?’

5. Each paragraph should contain just one idea or topic which is announced in its first sentence. This idea or topic should be directly related to the question or the subject you have been asked to discuss.

6. If you introduce a separate issue in order to illustrate some part of your argument, make sure that you return to the original subject as soon as possible. Part of your discussion should explain why and how this secondary issue is relevant.

Essay problems – Signposting

1. Unless you have been asked to do so, there is no need to signpost your argument.

2. That is, you do not need to use expressions such as:

‘Later in this essay I will be discussing…’

‘Let us now go on to consider…’

‘As I demonstrated earlier…’

‘We will now turn to evaluate another example…’

3. Just state clearly the point of your arguments and leave them to speak for themselves.

4. In a well-planned essay, this progression should be self-evident from the arrangement of your work.

5. A sound essay plan and a coherent structure will reveal the logic of your argument and the relationship of its parts.

6. Each new topic should be clearly identified or defined as soon as you begin dealing with it. This statement will provide all the indication needed of your intentions.

7. If you wish to some light indication of structure, it is perfectly acceptable to use formulations such as

‘The first reason … The second…’

‘On one hand … on the other…’

‘However, the main argument against this is…’

8. The conventions on signposting may vary slightly from one subject to another. In some of the sciences it is necessary to announce in advance what you will be writing about.

Essay problems – Commenting on the process

1. Your essay represents the results of your efforts. There is no need to comment on the manner in which you have worked.

2. Your tutor doesn’t need to know in what order you assembled your evidence, or what difficulties you encountered during its composition.

3. You might wish to argue that the question raises a certain number of difficulties or crucial issues. This is acceptable – so long as you say what they are.

4. You should then go on to discuss their relevance to the subject in question, and maybe even suggest some answers to them.

Essay problems – Posing questions

1. Do not present your argument in the form of questions.

2. Remember – you are supposed to be answering a question.

3. Avoid formulations such as:

Was she so overwhelmed at the thought of a ‘new brave’ husband that she shot him? In considering his cowardice, had Macomber removed his weapon – his weakness?

4. A common rule on this issue is as follows: “Never raise a question in an essay – unless you are going to answer it.”

Essay problems – Your own argument

1. Do not use quotation from the text as a substitute for your own argument.

2. That is, don’t present your answer to the question as a mixture of your own remarks, woven together with quotations.

3. Here is an example:

The poem describes a journey ‘from rich industrial shadows’ through crowded urban environments to a place of ‘loneliness’ where ‘silence stands/like heat’.

Essay problems – Referencing

1. Quotations from a text should be followed by page references – as in the following example:

These literary devices include simile, such as the description of the lion as ‘like some super-rhino’ (p.94) and the…

2. You should not include the reference as part of your text, as in the following example:

These literary devices include simile, such as the description of the lion on page ninety-four when it is described as ‘like some super-rhino’ and the other instance on page fifty-six when it is…

Essay problems – Creating structure

1. Essays should have a clear structure. This should be created in a firm essay plan.

2. Good structure is a persuasive or logical sequence of the parts in an essay.

3. The order of parts is often determined by the nature of the subject. This order might be created by:

  • logical progression
  • increasing significance
  • equal significance
  • chronological order
  • narrative sequence
  • category groupings

4. You can generate the parts of your essay by deciding which topics you will cover in your answer.

5. Each of these topics should be discussed separately – usually in at least one paragraph on its own.

6. If there is no natural order for your topics, you could deal with the smaller, less important items first. This leaves the larger, more important issues until the end of the essay.

See – How to structure an essay.

© Roy Johnson 2009

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Common essay problems

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sample from downloadable HTML program or PDF book

Essay problems – Relevance

1. Straying off the subject in question is a common problem. There are several simple solutions.

2. Always write out the question accurately and in full on both your notes and your essay script.

3. Plan your essays carefully, consult the wording, and relate each part of your argument to the topic(s) in question.

4. At each stage of the argument, you should keep asking yourself ‘Is this relevant?’, ‘Am I answering the question?’, ‘Does this relate directly to the subject I have been asked to discuss?’

5. Each paragraph should contain just one idea or topic which is announced in its first sentence. This idea or topic should be directly related to the question or the subject you have been asked to discuss.

6. If you introduce a separate issue in order to illustrate some part of your argument, make sure that you return to the original subject as soon as possible. Part of your discussion should explain why and how this secondary issue is relevant.

Essay problems – Signposting

1. Unless you have been asked to do so, there is no need to signpost your argument.

2. That is, you do not need to use expressions such as:

‘Later in this essay I will be discussing…’
‘Let us now go on to consider…’
‘As I demonstrated earlier…’
‘We will now turn to evaluate another example…’

3. Just state clearly the point of your arguments and leave them to speak for themselves.

4. In a well-planned essay, this progression should be self-evident from the arrangement of your work.

5. A sound essay plan and a coherent structure will reveal the logic of your argument and the relationship of its parts.

6. Each new topic should be clearly identified or defined as soon as you begin dealing with it. This statement will provide all the indication needed of your intentions.

7. If you wish to some light indication of structure, it is perfectly acceptable to use formulations such as:

‘The first reason … The second…’
‘On one hand … on the other…’
‘However, the main argument against this is…’

8. The conventions on signposting may vary slightly from one subject to another. In some of the sciences it is necessary to announce in advance what you will be writing about.

Essay problems – Commenting on the process

1. Your essay represents the results of your efforts. There is no need to comment on the manner in which you have worked.

2. Your tutor doesn’t need to know in what order you assembled your evidence, or what difficulties you encountered during its composition.

3. You might wish to argue that the question raises a certain number of difficulties or crucial issues. This is acceptable – so long as you say what they are.

4. You should then go on to discuss their relevance to the subject in question, and maybe even suggest some answers to them.

Essay problems – Posing questions

1. Do not present your argument in the form of questions.

2. Remember – you are supposed to be answering a question.

3. Avoid formulations such as:

Was she so overwhelmed at the thought of a ‘new brave’ husband that she shot him? In considering his cowardice, had Macomber removed his weapon – his weakness?

Essay problems – Your own argument

1. Do not use quotation from the text as a substitute for your own argument.

2. That is, don’t present your answer to the question as a mixture of your own remarks, woven together with quotations.

3. Here is an example:

The poem describes a journey ‘from rich industrial shadows’ through crowded urban environments to a place of ‘loneliness’ where ‘silence stands/like heat’.

Referencing

1. Quotations from a text should be followed by page references – as in the following example:

These literary devices include simile, such as the description of the lion as ‘like some super-rhino’ (p.94) and the…

2. You should not include the reference as part of your text, as in the following example:

These literary devices include simile, such as the description of the lion on page ninety-four when it is described as ‘like some super-rhino’ and the other instance on page fifty-six when it is…

Essay problems – Creating structure

1. Essays should have a clear structure. This should be created in a firm essay plan.

2. Good structure is a persuasive or logical sequence of the parts in an essay.

3. The order of parts is often determined by the nature of the subject. This order might be created by:

  • logical progression
  • increasing significance
  • equal significance
  • chronological order
  • narrative sequence
  • category groupings

4. You can generate the parts of your essay by deciding which topics you will cover in your answer.

5. Each of these topics should be discussed separately – usually in at least one paragraph on its own.

6. If there is no natural order for your topics, you could deal with the smaller, less important items first. This leaves the larger, more important issues until the end of the essay.

© Roy Johnson 2004

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Common file types

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Extension Type Characteristics
.aam media file MacroMedia Shockwave
.arc archive file
(obsolete)		 Open with PKZip or WinZip
.asp web page active server page – used to code Web pages that connect to databases
.au audio Sound file – open with player – used on older Web pages
.avi video clip Audio/Video Interleaved – movie clip – open with mplayer, IE, or Navigator with plugin
.bak backup file Used by many applications – often created automatically
.bat application DOS batch file – run by double-clicking in Win95 – edit with Notepad
.bmp graphic file Microsoft bitmap – open in MS Paint or graphics program
.cab archive Microsoft installation achive (cabinet file) – similar to .zip archive
.cfg — Configuration file
.cgi — Common Gateway Interface – used to exchange information with a server (often used with Perl)
.chk — Data recovered after running Checkdisk
.css style sheet plain text file containing web page style preferences
.csv data Comma Separated Value file – a way of presenting tabular data in
a text file – usually viewed in MS Excel.
.dat data file Used by several applications. Not to be opened directly.
.dcr media file Macromedia Shockwave movie
.dir media file Macromedia Director file – provides animation and interactivity
.dll dynamic link library Software used by Windows to provide services to applications
.doc document Microsoft Word file
.dot template Microsoft Word template
.drv device driver Used to control hardware – (old)
.dtd text document type definition
.exe application self-extracting or executable file – run by double-clicking in Win95
.faq data file Frequently Asked Questions – almost always a text file
.fla media Macromedia Flash animation file – requires Shockwave
.fnt — Font file
.gif image graphic in GIF format – open in web browser or graphics program
.gz application compressed archive file created by Gzip in the UNIX operating system
.hqx archive Compressed Macintosh file archive created by Binhex
.htm text file hypertext document [same as .html] – open in a web browser – edit in any word-processor or text editor
Dictionary of the Internet - Click for details at AmazonThis dictionary explains the thousands of new terms which have come into use during the last few years. It includes the abbreviations of newsgroups, the language of e-commerce, and the scientific terms used to describe the structure of the Internet. It provides terms on the Web itself, software technology, security, and the arcane language of hackers.
.ico Windows icon Open with an icon editor
.ini — Initialisation file
.jar Java Java compressed archive file
.jav Java cross platform programming language used to create complex interactive forms and special effects
.jpg image Graphic in JPEG format (Joint Photographic Experts Group) View with web browser or image editing program
.js JavaScript part of Web page used to create interactive effects such as mouse roll-overs and pop-up boxes
.jso — Java server page
.kbd data file Keyboard layout data
.log data file Created by many applications – usually a text file – edit in any text editor
.mdb database Database file created by Microsoft Access, a widely-used desktop relational database program; contains the database structure (tables and fields) and database entries (table rows) as well as data entry forms, queries, stored procedures, reports, and database security settings.
.mid audio audio file in MIDI format
.mov video QuickTime movie – view using IE or Netscape using plug-in
.mp3 audio Audio file in MP3 format – CD-quality sound, with 10x compression
.mpg movie Video movie in MPEG format (Motion Picture Experts Group)
.odf data OpenDocument Formula. Spreadsheet formula used by OpenOffice.org and StarOffice Calc; allows the results of calculations performed within the spreadsheet to be automatically entered into one or more cells; based on the OASIS OpenDocument standard and formatted in XML.
.old — Backup file (generic)
.pdf application Portable Document Format – requires Adobe Acrobat reader
.pl application Perl source file – text file, editable in any text editor
.png image graphic in Portable Network Graphics format – can work on all platforms
.ppt application Microsoft PowerPoint file – used for creating slides and overhead presentations
.pub — Microsoft Publisher page template file
.ram audio Real Audio file – open in browser with RealAudio plug-in
.rtf application Rich Text Format –
word-processor file with formatting codes
.scr screen saver
.sea application Self-extracting archive –
Apple-Mac – requires Stuffit
.sig signature Appended to outgoing email messages – editable in text editor
.swf media Macromedia Shockwave Flash animation movie
.sys — DOS system file – device driver or hardware configuration info
.tar application file archive created in the Unix operating system
.tar.gz application .tar archive compressed by Gzip
.tif image Tagged Image File format – graphic file – editable in graphics program
.tmp — temporary file – used by many programs
.ttf — True Type Font file – view with fontview
.txt text contains only ASCII code – also called ‘text file’ – editable in any text editor
.wav audio Sound file in Waveform format
.wsz graphics Winamp skin – visual interface for audio control board
.xls application Microsoft Excel worksheet file
.xml Web page extensible markup language – a plain text file for web pages
.zip application compressed file – open with WinZip or PKZip

© Roy Johnson 2002

Conclusions in essays

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sample from HTML program and PDF book

1. The conclusions of essays should draw together all the previous points of your argument into one general statement which is then directly related to the essay topic or the question you have been answering.

2. Do not end an essay abruptly. This creates the impression that you have suddenly run out of things to say, or that you are unable to produce a complete and reasoned argument.

3. The conclusion should not normally occupy more than five to ten per cent of the total length of the essay (rather like the introduction).

4. Try to avoid repeating any of the statements you have already made in your introduction. To do so creates the impression that you have not developed your argument or made any progress from the point at which you started.

5. Do not just re-state the original question, and if possible try to avoid using the same terms as those in which it is posed. This too creates the impression that you are not trying to produce an argument of your own.

6. Try to end the essay on a crisp note. This can sometimes be done with an appropriate phrase or a quotation. It should illustrate your argument and be directly related to the topic(s) in question. Many people save their most clinching quotation for last.

7. The following example illustrates the concluding paragraph of a second year undergraduate essay on George Orwell. You will notice that it is clearly ‘summing up’ its earlier arguments and offering a final judgement.

So in conclusion it seems reasonable to say of Orwell that he contradicted himself, that he did not recognise his own class bias, that he misunderstood political theory, and that he was not really aware of his own prejudices. Yet for all this, he was a courageous writer who made a serious attempt to understand a particularly difficult and confusing period of history.

© Roy Johnson 2003

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Conjunctions – how to understand them

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free pages from our English Language software program

Conjunctions – definition

conjunctions There are two main types of conjunctions:

  • Co-ordinating conjunctions join together parts of a sentence which are of equal status.
  • Subordinating conjunctions join together parts of a sentence which have a complex relationship.
Examples

redbtn There are five co-ordinating conjunctions in English:

and   or   nor   but   for

redbtn There are many more subordinating conjunctions:

whereas, where, if, because, while, as, when, since

Use

redbtn Co-ordinating conjunctions are used in the following statements:

Jim and Sally are going to the concert.
Give me that gun or I’ll call the police.
Neither a lender nor a borrower be.
We have no lemons but we do have some limes.

redbtn NB! It is possible for a word to be a conjunction in one sentence and a different part of speech in another.

redbtn The words and, or, nor, but, for are all co-ordinating conjunctions.

redbtn They are conjunctions because they usually join together parts of a sentence.

redbtn They are co-ordinating because the parts they join are of equal rank. For example:

We have no limes but we do have some lemons.

redbtn Conjunctions should not be confused with adverbs such as:

moreover, besides, so, consequently, however, also

redbtn Take the following statement:

The weather was bad last Tuesday so we stayed at home.

redbtn Here the word so links the two parts, but it creates a sequence and a sense of cause and effect — rather than the joining of two equal statements.

redbtn The conjunction may not always be placed between the words being linked. It can appear elsewhere:

Because I was tired, I went to bed early.

Self-assessment quiz follows >>>

© Roy Johnson 2003

English Language 3.0 program
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Consonants – how to understand them

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free pages from our English Language software program

Consonants – definition

consonants The terms vowels and consonants refer to the sounds which make up the spoken language.

redbtn Vowels are open sounds and consonants are relatively closed.

redbtn The idea that English has five vowels – a, e, i, o, and u – is slightly misleading. This statement refers to those letters of the alphabet which can be used to represent some of the many open sounds of the language.

Examples

redbtn Here are some examples of words which end with a vowel:

agenda, bar, go, queue, tea, empty

redbtn Here are some examples of words which end with a consonant:

brick, hat, grab, tap, plum, fuss, does, which, belong

Use

redbtn The terms vowel and consonant are fairly loose terms for the vast variety of sounds which make up any language.

redbtn Most people are comfortable with words which are spoken as

vowel-consonant-vowel-consonant

redbtn This sequence of sounds is easy to articulate – as in potato.

redbtn Consumer products are given such terms because they are easily repeated and memorised:

redbtn There are approximately forty-two vowel sounds and fifty consonant sounds in English.

redbtn The written code which attempts to represent all known sounds in all known languages is the International Phonetic Alphabet.

redbtn The symbols comprising the code are used in dictionaries to indicate the pronunciation of a word:

hat  =  /hæt/

redbtn The code can be useful to non-native students of any language as a guide to pronunciation — provided they understand the code.

redbtn If the code has been learned, a speaker can—in theory!— read out a paragraph in any language without understanding its meaning. [Accomplished actors have been known to use this technique.]

redbtn Phonology is a complex and detailed study of language sounds in which the smallest unit of sound is known as a phoneme – one single sound which cannot be split up into anything smaller as part of a particular language.

redbtn English spelling and English pronunciation have an extremely loose connection. This is a product of the history of the language, the wide-ranging mixture of speakers, and the important fact that speech and writing in any language are two separate systems.

redbtn Linguists regard speech as primary and writing as secondary.

redbtn We acquire speech naturally, just as we grow taller or get a second set of teeth. Writing on the other hand has to be learned – in the same way as we learn to drive a car.

Self-assessment quiz follows >>>

© Roy Johnson 2003

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