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Abbreviations

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Abbreviations – definition

abbreviations in English Abbreviations are letters or shortened words which are used instead of the full word.

Examples
Abbreviation Full expression Latin term
e.g. for example exempli gratia
i.e. that is id est
N.B. please note nota bene
Mr Mister —
US United States —
Use

abbreviations Abbreviations are used to save space – or to avoid repeating common terms.

abbreviations They are often used in dictionaries, encyclopedias, and bibliographies.

abbreviations Some organisations abbreviate their titles to the initial capital letters of their names.

abbreviations Abbreviations are very useful when taking notes.

abbreviations Many traditional abbreviations are shortened forms of words from Latin.

abbreviations NB! Don’t use abbreviations in formal writing. Write out the word(s) in full.

abbreviations Notice that a full stop is placed after an abbreviation, but not when the full word is used.

abbreviations Sometimes the full stop may be omitted in order to avoid double punctuation.

abbreviations Never begin a sentence with an abbreviation. Either spell out the word, or re-arrange the words in the sentence.

abbreviations Companies and organisations often drop the full stops from their abbreviated titles.

ICI – Imperial Chemicals Industry
BBC – British Broadcasting Corporation
WHO – World Health Organisation

abbreviations Some abbreviations are spoken as if they were complete words: for instance, NATO (‘NayTow’).

abbreviations Others are spelled out. For instance VIP [very important person] is usually spoken as three separate letters – “Vee-Eye-Pea”.

abbreviations Abbreviations are very useful when taking notes, but you should not use them in the main text of any formal writing.

abbreviations If you wish to use any of these expressions, they should be written out in full. That is, don’t use e.g., but write out for example.

Self-assessment quiz follows …

© Roy Johnson 2003

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Accent – how to understand it

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Accent – definition

accent Accent refers to a speaker’s style of pronunciation.

redbtn It may signal the regional or social identity of the speaker.

redbtn Accent does not refer to the content of what is being said.

Examples

Class accent

Received Pronunciation [RP] is a form of speech used by (for instance) many BBC newsreaders and members of the Royal Family.

It is based on social class, not on the geographic origins of the speaker.

Regional Accent

A Geordie accent is the regional speech style used by speakers in the North East of England.

A Cockney accent is the indigenous speech style used by people in the London area.

‘Book’ might be pronounced as ‘Bewk’ in northern England, but ‘Back’ in southern England.

Similarly, the term ‘car’ might be pronounced as ‘kaar’ and ‘caw’ in these two regions.

Use

accent Every geographical area has its own characteristic and recognisable style of speech which is used by a group.

accent Everybody speaks with an accent. Those people who speak with received pronunciation [RP] are merely using the minority speech style of prestige.

accent It is quite common for a person to speak Standard English with a regional accent.

accent NB! Accent is not the same thing as dialect.

accent The term dialect refers to grammar and vocabulary as well as pronunciation. That is, it describes the content of speech.

accent Fewer than two percent [yes! – 2%] of the UK population speak Received Pronunciation (RP).

accent Perhaps this statistic is surprising when we consider what prestige it has held historically and currently.

accent RP was once itself a regional accent – that of the East Midlands. It acquired its status because East Midlands speakers converged on London as it became a centre for merchants. In other words, London became the power base and the financial centre, and the East Midlands accent became the spoken standard.

accent This prestige accent developed alongside the regional accent of the London area. The co-existence of these two accents still exists today.

accent The Cockney accent is spoken in the East End of London by many original Londoners, whilst RP is spoken by many politicians and by upper-class people who live and work in the same area.

accent The Cockney accent is a regional accent, and RP is class-based.

accent Many regional speakers feel uncomfortable about their accent. This perpetuates the deference and prestige given to RP.

accent Recent studies have shown that RP speakers will often be chosen for jobs, despite the superior skills of regional-speaking competitors.

accent Some presenters on radio and television are employed even though they have strong regional accents. However, they tend to be used on programmes which are not very prestigious, such as weather forecasts, arts programs, and regional news bulletins.

accent Accent can still be a very powerful indicator of status, and it is often an emotive item in social interaction.

accent Speech varies subtly between individuals using the same accent. Because of this, a broad description is all that can be achieved. This applies to the classification of other accents too.

Self-assessment quiz follows …

© Roy Johnson 2003

English Language 3.0 program
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Acronyms

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Acronyms – definition

Acronyms An acronym is an abbreviation created from the initial letters of a phrase or name.

Examples
BBC British Broadcasting Corporation
IBM International Business Machines
NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organisation
Use

Acronyms These acronyms are useful, because they save you the trouble of writing out the name in full every time you wish to refer to it.

Acronyms Some acronyms, like those above, are very well known, and can be used without too much problem in most written communication.

Acronyms However, any which are not so well know should always be named in full the first time they are used, and the acronym shown immediately afterwards in brackets. Here’s an example.

The committee elected four new members to the Corporate Affairs Steering Group (CASG) who will report immediately before the annual general meeting (AGM) at the end of July.

Acronyms Some abbreviations are spoken as if they were complete words: for instance, NATO (“NayTow”). and International Criminal Police Organization (“Inter-Pol”)

Acronyms Others are spelled out. For instance Very Important Person is (VIP) usually spoken as three separate letters “Vee-Eye-Pea”.

Acronyms There is no need to put full stops between the letters of an acronym.

Acronyms The plural of an acronym is shown by adding the letter s – as in compact disks (CDs)

Acronyms There is no need to use an apostrophe, which should be reserved for cases showing possession – as in ‘the CD’s jewel case was broken’.

Acronyms Most acronyms are formed by the use of capital letters, but where a normally pronounceable word is formed, they often include lower case letters as well – as in (Radar) – radio detecting and ranging.

Acronyms Acronyms are particularly useful when taking notes, but you should remember to make a record of the full name of any new instances.

AIDS acquired immune deficiency syndrome
ASBO Anti-Social Behaviour Order
BBC British Broadcasting Corporation
CD Compact Disc
FAQ frequently asked questions
Gestapo Geheime Staatspolizei (secret state police)
Interpol International Criminal Police Organization
Laser Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation
NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization
Radar radio detection and ranging
Scuba self-contained underwater breathing apparatus
SQL Structured Query Language
WHO World Health Organisation

Self-assessment quiz follows …

© Roy Johnson 2011

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Adjectives – how to use them

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Adjectives – definition

adjectives Adjectives modify nouns or pronouns. They can be placed before the noun, or refer back to it.

adjectives In most sentences in English, adjectives precede the noun.

Examples

big – brown – long – heavy – bright

  • This is a long brown pencil box.
  • He was wearing a heavy black overcoat.
  • It turned out to be a bright sunny day.
Use

adjectives Most adjectives are words which describe the object to which they are attached.

adjectives Inexperienced writers often pile up adjectives, believing they will be more effective [‘the fierce and ugly old black shepherd dog’]. Experienced writers use fewer, with care.

adjectives NB! Adjectives are describing words.

adjectives Adjectives can also be made from verbs:

He was the driving force in a prosperous company.

adjectives These adjectives are formed from the verbs to dive and to prosper.

adjectives Adjectives can also be made from nouns:

Let’s sit on that grass verge, not in the car park.

adjectives Adjectives can either be used in a single form, as in ‘the red ball’ or, in multiple form, as in ‘a big shiny yellow beach ball’.

adjectives There is a rule of sequence here which requires the following order:

Size — texture — colour — type

adjectives The next version of this statement is not a normal English sentence, because it does not follow the descriptive rule of word-order:

The yellow big beach shiny ball.

adjectives However, both poetry and advertising deliberately break the rules to make an impact on the reader or listener.

adjectives Placing an adjective after the noun it describes often has a poetic effect:

these roses, heavy with dew

adjectives When an adjective is formed out of proper noun, it retains the capital letter:

He became a British subject.
It happened during the Victorian period.

adjectives If the adjective is formed from a common noun, then no capital is required:

She bought a table cover.

Self-assessment quiz follows …

© Roy Johnson 2003

English Language 3.0 program
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Adverbs – how to use them

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Adverbs – definition

adverbs Adverbs usually modify a verb.

redbtn Adverbs describe how, where, why, or when an action was done.

redbtn Adverbs can also modify an adjective, or another adverb.

redbtn It can either precede or follow the word it qualifies.

redbtn Many adverbs end in —ly.

Examples

gently – slowly – greatly

Use

redbtn The adverb may follow the verb, as in

He broke the news as gently as possible.

redbtn Or it may precede the verb, as in

She slowly handed him the important document.

redbtn NB! Adverbs can sometimes change the meaning of the word they modify.

redbtn There are three main classes of adverb. Those which describe, those which indicate, and those which show number or amount.

describe – well, greatly, usefully, prettily

indicate – there, here, then

number – once, secondly, very much

redbtn The following examples show adverbs in context:

describe – He has greatly improved his recent coursework grades.

indicate – Here they noticed a small red spot on the ceiling.

number – Once he started he couldn’t stop.

redbtn It is interesting to observe that in English the majority of adverbs end with the suffix -ly, whereas in French they end with the suffix -ment. For example: doucement, lentement, heureusement.

redbtn The ending -ly derives from the Anglo-Saxon word ‘lich’ meaning ‘body’. For instance, a lych gate in a churchyard is one through which the body is brought for burial.

redbtn The French suffix -ment derives from ‘mind’, and it is arguable that the French traditionally have seen themselves as philosophers, where the English have been more practical. Is there a link here?

redbtn Adverbs can occasionally modify a preposition or a conjunction.

Self-assessment quiz follows …

© Roy Johnson 2003

English Language 3.0 program
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Alliteration – how to understand it

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Alliteration – definition

alliteration Alliteration is a figure of speech featuring the repetition of consonant sounds.

alliteration These are the hard sounds of letters such as B, D, K, P, and T – as distinct from the softer vowel sounds of letters such as A, E, I, O, and U.

redbtn The repeated sound is often (but not always) at the beginning of words.

Examples

She sells sea shells on the sea shore

‘Tinker, tailor, soldier, sailor’

Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled pepper

Use

redbtn Alliteration is used for emphasis or stylistic effect

redbtn It is featured heavily in children’s rhymes and popular poetry.

redbtn It is also used in the lyrics of popular songs, and in advertising.

redbtn NB! Alliteration is the repetition of consonant sounds, whereas assonance is the repetition of vowel sounds.

redbtn Alliteration is used a great deal (along with assonance) in children’s rhymes, because it emphasises rhythm and makes memorising easier.

Baa baa blacksheep

Have you any wool?

Yes sir, no sir.

Three bags full.

redbtn The same effect is used in advertising, so that slogans will stick in people’s minds:

Snap, crackle and pop

redbtn [Notice that this example also makes use of assonance and onomatopoeia.]

redbtn Alliteration is used much more in poetry than in prose. It is also used in song lyrics, football chants, and advertising jingles.

redbtn Alliteration also has a long and distinguished history. Middle English poetry was written in a verse form which featured the repetition of consonants within the line:

In a somer season, whan soft was the sonne

I shope me in shroudes, as I a shepe were

[PIERS PLOWMAN]

redbtn Take care not to use alliteration where it is not appropriate — in formal writing for instance. In such cases, it can have a distracting and irritating effect.

Self-assessment quiz follows >>>

© Roy Johnson 2003

English Language 3.0 program
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Apostrophes – how to use them

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Apostrophes – definition

apostrophes Apostrophes are shown by a raised comma — like this ( ‘ ).

redbtn Apostrophes are used to show possession and to punctuate contractions.

Examples

Possession– My mother’s house – The girl’s bicycle

The house belongs to my mother – The bicycle belongs to the girl

Contractions– There’s nobody here – Where’s Freddy?

There is nobody here – Where is Freddy?

Use

redbtn We can write The tail of the dog or The dog’s tail. This is possession – when something belongs to someone or something.

redbtn We can also write It is a lovely day or It’s a lovely day. This is contraction – when two words are merged. The apostrophe is used to denote the missing letter.

redbtn NB! Many people have problems with the apostrophe. [You’re not alone.] Read on!

Possession

redbtn When the possessor is single we indicate possession by using an apostrophe followed by the letter s:

The man’s coat
my sister’s hat

redbtn When the possessors are plural, the apostrophe is placed after the final s:

The girls’ bicycles
my cousins’ parents

redbtn When names end with the letter ‘s’, either use is acceptable:

James’ wife or
James’s wife

redbtn [It is often said that the choice between the two should be made on how the word is pronounced.]

redbtn The apostrophe is never used with possessive pronouns:

his – hers – its – ours – yours – theirs

redbtn But it is used with one: One must do one’s best.

redbtn Note that the apostrophe is not required where a word has been formed by omitting its first part:

bus – not – ‘bus [from omnibus]

phone – not – ‘phone [from telephone]

redbtn No apostrophe is required in the plural form of numbers and dates:

in the 1920s
the roaring twenties

Contractions

redbtn In formal writing we would write She has always loved him, but when speaking we would probably say She’s always loved him. The apostrophe is used to indicate the missing letters (or sounds).

I’m (I am)    He’s (He is)    You’re (You are)

redbtn Notice the difference between it’s (it is) and its (belonging to it).

redbtn NB! There is no such thing as its’

redbtn The use of contractions tends to make writing less formal.

redbtn It is just possible that the apostrophe will be the next linguistic feature to disappear from common use.

redbtn It causes lots of problems, and in most cases the context would make the meaning clear even if it were missing.

redbtn It is in fact a relic from the days when English was an inflected language. This may be a reason for the problems, and it would form some justification for its disappearance.

Self-assessment quiz follows >>>

© Roy Johnson 2003

English Language 3.0 program
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Articles – how to use them

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Articles – definition

articles Articles go in front of nouns.

redbtn There are two types of articles in English:

  • the definite article [the]
  • the indefinite article [a or an].
Examples

The definite article is the — as in the book

The indefinite article is a – as in a pencil

or an — as in an apple

Use

redbtn When using the indefinite article a is used before

redbtn an is used when the noun begins with a vowel.

redbtn This convention is based on ease of speaking. It is easier to say an apple than a apple, and a new book than an new book.

redbtn The definite article the remains the same in all cases, although speakers do vary the pronunciation according to whether a vowel or a consonant follows. For example:

[thee] – the other – the argument

[theu] – the ball – the tent

redbtn NB! Just be thankful the article is gender-free in English. [It’s not in other languages.]

redbtn Articles in English are fairly simple compared with some other European languages. English articles vary only according to ease of speaking, whereas in French they have to agree with the gender of the noun. For example

MASCULINE le bureau
(the office)		 le matin
(the morning)
FEMININE la maison
(the house)		 la plage
(the beach)

redbtn Students of English as a foreign language are relieved to find that the articles stay fairly constant with the exception of the variation between a and an.

redbtn However, English wasn’t always like this. Old English or Anglo-Saxon had as many variations as Latin or modern German. These have very gradually disappeared as word-order has become more crucial.

redbtn Even today, some people say an historic occasion or an hotel. This is a remnant of Middle English when, because of the French influence, the aitch was not articulated, making the initial syllables of these words effectively vowels. [End of history lesson.]

Self-assessment quiz follows >>>

© Roy Johnson 2003

English Language 3.0 program
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Assonance – how to understand it

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Assonance – definition

assonance Assonance is a figure of speech featuring the repetition of vowel sounds.

redbtn The repetitions are usually close together, to create a euphonious effect.

Examples

‘The rain in Spain falls mainly on the plain.’

‘We love to spoon ‘neath the moon in June.’

On either side the river lie
Long fields of barley and of rye

[TENNYSON – ‘The Lady of Shalott’]

Use

redbtn You can see from these examples that the device is used a lot in song lyrics and poetry.

redbtn Because the vowels are ‘open’ sounds, it creates a generally soothing effect.

redbtn The repeated sound also makes the text easy to memorise.

redbtn It is also popular in advertising, for the same reasons.

redbtn NB! This device can easily become cloying.

redbtn The repetition of vowel sounds creates rhyme and a generally soothing effect.

redbtn Phonologically, it is interesting to note that the same sound may be represented by different combinations of letters:

On either side the river lie
Long fields of barley and of rye

redbtn The same sound here is produced by /ei/, /i/, /ie/, and /ye/.

Self-assessment quiz follows >>>>

© Roy Johnson 2003

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Audience – how to understand it

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Audience – definition

audience Audience is a term used to refer to the reader of a text, or the listener to what we say.

redbtn The audience might be any of the following:

single person
selected
specialist
all the same kind		 group of people
random or accidental
non-specialist
very mixed
Examples
Personal letter single selected
Note to milkman single specialist
MA dissertation single specialist targeted
Insurance claim group selected specialist
Novel group random non-specialist
Use

redbtn The main purpose of speaking or writing is to communicate.

redbtn An awareness of audience helps to make speech or writing more effective.

redbtn Efficient writers and effective speakers target their audience as clearly as possible.

redbtn NB! Sometimes a piece of writing may have more than one audience.

redbtn An awareness of your audience is a critical factor in efficient communication for both speech and writing.

redbtn Efficiency can be improved by choosing the vocabulary, tone, and style which are appropriate for the audience.

redbtn Publishers, advertisers, poets, and novelists all target their readers or listeners.

redbtn The vocabulary of a newspaper is chosen very carefully with its readership in mind.

redbtn Radio and television programmes adapt their use of language to their target audiences.

redbtn We write letters to our friends in a style which is different to that we use for the bank manager or someone we don’t know.

redbtn If someone stops you to ask for directions, they won’t be interested in how long you’ve lived in the town, and what it used to look like before the War. On the other hand, if you’re a member of the History Society you may be invited to give a half-hour lecture on that very topic. Your audience is different in each case.

Self-assessment quiz follows >>>

© Roy Johnson 2003

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