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Numbers in essays

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1. A general rule for the presentation of numbers (excluding those dealing with science and mathematics) is that numbers below a hundred are written, and numbers above one hundred are presented by digits:

four brown horses ten years old
she is twenty-two 3,500 tonnes of coal
286 casualties 200 metres long

2. Notice that numbers expressed in more than a single word are hyphenated:

thirty-six     ninety-eight     fifty-five

3. Even above one hundred, round numbers are often expressed as words:

one thousand     two million     three billion

4. However, very large numbers are often expressed in a combination of figures and units of millions or billions:

Social benefit payments were running at $7.8 million per day compared with only $5.6 million a year ago.

5. Where two different series of quantities are being discussed, it may clarify matters if words are used for one series and numbers for the other:

Ten wards in the county emergency hospital contained 16 beds each, but fifteen others contained as many as 30.

6. The following example taken from a piece of journalism illustrates this general rule with mention of numbers both below and above one hundred.

One of the nuclear weapons systems would be a four-boat Trident strategic missile fleet with 512 warheads compared with the 192 urged by Labour and the Liberal Democrats to match the numbers in the Polaris fleet it replaces.

7. Do not begin sentences with a numeral (such as 46 or 107). Either rearrange the sentence, or write out the number (as Forty-six or One hundred and seven).

8. Decimals and percentages should be expressed in figures, and the word ‘percent’ should be written out, except in scientific writing:

With interest currently running at 8 percent, the total monthly repayment figure would be almost $2.5 million.

9. When expressing dates before the Christian era, remember to put the numbers of the earlier date first, and give the later date in full to avoid confusion:

Nebuchadnezzar (1792-1750 BC) not Nebuchadnezzar (1792-50 BC)

10. Dates after the Christian era should be expressed in the same way, but with the era written first:

Nebuchadnezzar (1792-1750 BC) but Pope Sixtus III (AD 432-440)

11. The use of Roman numerals is normally confined to the names of monarchs and popes, for the acts of plays, and for the volumes and subdivisions of books:

Edward VI Pope Pius IV
Othello III.iv.18 Chapter XII
Part III Act V, Sc 3

12. In numbers above a thousand or more, the thousands are marked off with a comma:

10,000 BC     1,500 metres

13. Notice that the plurals of numbers are formed by the addition of s alone. The apostrophe is not required:

in the 1920s     pilots of 747s

© Roy Johnson 2003

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Page layout for essays

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1. Academic page layout – using word-processors
Modern word-processors allow you to create attractive page layout for your documents. The impression made by your essays or reports will be enhanced by good design. You should practise controlling the basic functions of your word-processor to improve the presentation of text on your pages.

2. Margins
The default settings of most word-processors create a margin of one inch at each edge of the page. You should try increasing your side margins (say, to one-and-a-half inches). This not only improves the appearance of your work on an A4 page, it leaves more room in which your tutor can write comments.

3. Fonts
For the main text of your essay, choose a font with serifs (‘Times Roman’, ‘Garamond’, or ‘Schoolbook’).

serifed fonts

These make the text easier to read. Avoid sans-serif fonts such as ‘Arial’ or ‘Helvetica’: these make continuous reading more difficult. They may be used for headings however.

sans-serif fonts

Display fonts (such as ‘Poster’ or ‘Showtime’) should not be used at all for academic work. They are designed for advertising.

display fonts

4. Font Size
In most cases, the size of font chosen should be eleven or twelve points. This will be easy to read, and will appear proportionate to its use, when printed out on A4 paper.

5. Quotes
Where you have quotations of more than three lines, they should normally be set in the same font as the body of the text, but the size may be reduced by one or two points. This draws attention to the fact that it is a quotation from a secondary source.

6. Spacing
Your word-processor will have single line-spacing as its default. This will produce a neat page. However, your text may be more usefully laid out in double line-spacing. This will leave more room for tutor comment.

7. Paragraphs
If you decide to stay with single line-spacing, put a double space between each paragraph. (In this case you do not need to indent the first line of the paragraph.)

8. Justification
You have two choices. Full justification arranges your text in a straight line on both the left and right-hand margins Left-justified will be straight only on the left, leaving the text ‘ragged’ on the right. This has the advantage of producing more regular word-spacing – but full justification will probably have a better visual effect overall.

9. Indentation
Never adjust your indentation using the spacebar. This will create very uneven layout when you print your document. Always use the TAB stop and the INDENT key. Remember that a TAB stop indents just the first line of a paragraph. The INDENT key will indent the whole of the paragraph.

10. Indenting quotes
Take full advantage of indenting to regularise your presentation of
quotations. Use double indentation for those longer quotations which would otherwise occupy more than two or three lines of the text in your essay. Try to be consistent throughout.

11. Indenting paragraphs?
If you do not show paragraphs by double-spacing, you will need to indent the first line of each new paragraph.

12. Italics and bold
Use italics for the titles of books and journals. (Also use it for emphasis.) Bold is best reserved for headings and sub-headings.

13. Headings
Headings, sub-headings, or essay questions may be presented in either a slightly larger font size than the body of the text, or they may be given emphasis by the use of bold.

14. Capitals
Don’t use continuous capital letters in a heading. This looks unsightly, and it makes the heading difficult to read.

15. Underlining
There is no need to underline headings or titles [even though many people think it is good practice]. If something is a title, a heading or a question at the top of an essay, then the larger font, or the use of bold should be enough to give it emphasis and importance. Underlining just makes text harder to read.

16. Page numbering
Use the automatic page-numbering feature to place numbers on all the pages of your essays. If for some reason you find this problematic (which many do), add the numbers by hand.

17. Hyphenation
If your word-processor automatically hyphenates words at the end of a line, take care to read through the work and eliminate any howlers such as ‘the-rapist’ and ‘thin-king’.

18. Widows and orphans
In laying out your pages, you should avoid creating paragraphs which start on the last line of a page or which finish on the first of the next. (These are called, in the jargon of the printing trade, ‘Widows and Orphans’). The solution to this problem is to control the number of lines on a page so as to push the text forward. An extra space at the bottom of a page is more acceptable than just one or two lines of text at the top of the next.

19. Page density
Do not create pages which are dense with closely-packed text. These will have an unattractive and off-putting effect.

20. Form
Don’t try to imitate the appearance of a printed book. Remember that an academic essay serves a different function. Leave plenty of white space around your work, and let the text ‘speak’ to the reader.

© Roy Johnson 2003

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Paragraphs in essays

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1. The purpose (and definition) of paragraphs in essays is that they deal with just one topic or major point of argument in an essay. That topic or argument should normally be announced in the opening sentence, which is sometimes called a ‘topic sentence’.

2. The sentences which immediately follow the topic sentence should expand and develop the statement, explaining and relating its relevance to the question in general.

3. This opening statement and amplification should then be followed by evidence to support the argument being made. You should provide illustrative examples which are discussed as an explanation of the central idea.

4. Paragraphs in most academic essays should normally be between 50 words minimum and 200 words maximum in length. They could be longer if you were explaining a topic in detail in an extended piece of work.

5. The last sentence of a paragraph should try to round off consideration of the topic in some way. It may also contain some statement which links it to the one which comes next.

6. Consecutive paragraphs may be linked with terms such as ‘However’ and ‘On the other hand’ so as to provide a sense of continuity and structure in your argument. If you are in any doubt however, let them stand separately and speak for themselves.

7. The recommended structure of a typical paragraph in academic writing is as follows. It is rather like a smaller version of the structure of a complete essay.

  • The opening topic sentence
  • A fuller explanation of the topic sentence
  • A discussion of its significance
  • Consideration of examples or evidence
  • A concluding sentence

8. What follows is an example taken from an essay written in response to the question ‘Discuss the case for and against political censorship of the media.’

The arguments against political censorship however can be made on grounds which are surely just as firm. The moral arguments usually centre on notions of ‘freedom of information’ and the individual’s ‘right to know’. The legal arguments point to inconsistencies in current regulations as applied to the various forms of media (books, television, newspapers) and to differences in the law between the UK and other western countries. There are also a number of social and political arguments ranging from objections of class bias in the composition of those bodies which frame regulations, to similar objections to the ownership and control of the various forms of media. Exploring each one of these arguments in turn, it is possible to see that the case against political censorship can be just as strong.

9. Avoid very short paragraphs which contain only one or two sentences. These are sometimes used in fiction or journalism for dramatic effect. In an academic essay however, this device does not allow you to develop an argument or discuss evidence.

© Roy Johnson 2003

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Plagiarism in essays

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1. Plagiarism in essays occurs when you take someone else’s ideas or words and try to pass them off as your own original work. In its worst form this happens when someone is stuck for ideas and lifts a passage from a textbook, hoping that the use of this ‘borrowed’ material will not be noticed. [It is usually very noticeable.]

2. Sometimes this can happen unintentionally, because the student uses a passage from someone else’s work – but forgets to put quote marks around it. These lifted passages are easily noticeable because of the sudden shift in tone in the writing.

3. You should always acknowledge the original source of any words or ideas which you use in your own work. Any attempt to pass off work which is not your own is regarded as cheating in academic circles, and is usually severely censured.

4. You can either acknowledge any idea you use in summary form:

This is what the critic Stanley Fish has called ‘interpretive communities’ (1) as a strategy in his argument that …

5. Alternatively, you can interrupt your own argument to briefly quote a passage from the original source. As Stanley Fish suggests:

Interpretive communities are made up of those who share interpretive strategies not for reading (in the conventional sense) but for writing texts, for constituting their properties and assigning their intentions. (1)

6. In both cases you must acknowledge that original source, either in a footnote or an endnote, which is shown as follows:

NOTES
1. Stanley Fish, Is There a Text in this Class, Harvard University Press, 1980, p.169.

7. Unless you have specifically been asked to discuss or summarise other people’s arguments, you should avoid composing an essay by stringing together accounts of other writers’ work.

8. More difficult instances occur when dealing with ideas that are in the public domain. For instance, you might not know who first thought of a concept you wish to bring into play. In such a case you should simply acknowledge the fact that the idea is not your own.

What follows is the rather stringently worded code on plagiarism from a typical university handbook.

Plagiarism

Plagiarism is the theft or appropriation of someone else’s work without proper acknowledgement, presenting the materials as if they were one’s own. Plagiarism is a serious academic offence and the consequences are severe.

a) Course work, dissertations, and essays submitted for assessment must be the student’s own work, unless in the case of group projects a joint effort is expected and indicated as such.

b) Unacknowledged direct copying from the work of another person, or the unacknowledged close paraphrasing of somebody else’s work, is called plagiarism and is a serious offence, equated with cheating in examinations. This applies to copying both from other student’s work and from published sources such as books, reports or journal articles.

c) Use of quotations or data from the work of others is entirely acceptable, and is often very valuable provided that the source of the quotation or data is given. Failure to provide a source or put quotation marks around material that is taken from elsewhere gives the appearance that the comments are ostensibly one’s own. When quoting word-for-word from the work of another person quotation marks or indenting (setting the quotation in from the margin) must be used and the source of the quoted material must be acknowledged.

d) Paraphrasing when the original statement is still identifiable and has no acknowledgement, is plagiarism. A close paraphrase of another person’s work must have an acknowledgement to the source. It is not acceptable to put together unacknowledged passages from the same or from different sources link these together with a few words or sentences of your own and changing a few words from the original text: this is regarded as over-dependence on other sources, which is a form of plagiarism.

e) Direct quotation from an earlier piece of the student’s own work, if unattributed, suggests that the work is original, when in fact it is not. The direct copying of one’s own writings qualifies as plagiarism if the fact that the work has been or is to be presented elsewhere is not acknowledged.

f) Sources of quotations used should be listed in full in a bibliography at the end of the piece of work and in a style required by the student’s department.

g) Plagiarism is a serious offence and will always result in imposition of a penalty. In deciding upon the penalty the University will take into account factors such as the year of study, the extent and proportion of the work that has been plagiarised and the apparent intent of the student. the penalties that can be imposed range from a minimum of zero mark for the work (without allowing resubmission) through to downgrading of degree class, the award of a lesser qualification (eg a Pass degree rather than Honours, a certificate rather than a diploma) to disciplinary measures such as suspension or expulsion.

© Roy Johnson 2003

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Planning essays

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sample from HTML program and PDF book

1. Planning essays – strategy
You can approach planning essays using a number of different writing strategies. Some people like to start writing and wait to see what develops. Others work up scraps of ideas until they perceive a shape emerging. However, if you are in any doubt at all, it’s a good idea to plan your work. The task of writing is usually much easier if you create a set of notes which outline the points you are going to make. Using this approach, you will create a basic structure on which your ideas can be built.

2. Plans
This is a part of the essay-writing process which is best carried out using plenty of scrap paper. Get used to the idea of shaping and re-shaping your ideas before you start writing, editing and re-arranging your arguments as you give them more thought. Planning on-screen using a word-processor is possible, but it’s a fairly advanced technique.

3. Analyse the question
Make sure you understand what the question is asking for. What is it giving you the chance to write about? What is its central issue? Analyse any of its key terms and any instruction terms. If you are in any doubt, ask your tutor to explain what is required.

4. Generate ideas
You need to assemble ideas for the essay. On a first sheet of paper, make a note of anything which might be relevant to your answer. These might be topics, ideas, observations, or instances from your study materials. Put down anything you think of at this stage.

5. Choosing topics
On a second sheet of paper, extract from your brainstorm listings those topics and points of argument which are of greatest relevance to the question and its central issue. Throw out anything which cannot be directly related to the essay question.

6. Put topics in order
On a third sheet of paper, put these chosen topics in some logical sequence. At this stage you should be formulating a basic response to the question, even if it is provisional and may later be changed. Try to arrange the points so that they form a persuasive and coherent argument.

7. Arrange your evidence
All the major points in your argument need to be supported by some sort of evidence. On any further sheets of paper, compile a list of brief quotations from other sources (together with page references) which will be offered as your evidence.

8. Make necessary changes
Whilst you have been engaged in the first stages of planning, new ideas may have come to mind. Alternate evidence may have occurred to you, or the line of your argument may have shifted somewhat. Be prepared at this stage to rearrange your plan so that it incorporates any of these new materials or ideas. Try out different arrangements of your essay topics until you are sure they form the most convincing and logical sequence.

9. Finalise essay plan
The structure of most essay plans can be summarised as

  • Introduction
  • Arguments
  • Conclusion

State your case as briefly and rapidly as possible, present the evidence for this case in the body of your essay, then sum up and try to ‘lift’ the argument to a higher level in your conclusion. Your final plan should be something like a list of half a dozen to ten major points of argument. Each one of these points will be expanded to a paragraph of something around 100-200 words minimum in length.

10. Relevance
At all stages of essay planning, and even when writing the essay, you should keep the question in mind. Keep asking yourself “Is this evidence directly relevant to the topic I have been asked to discuss?” If in doubt, be prepared to scrap plans and formulate new ones – which is much easier than scrapping finished essays. At all times aim for clarity and logic in your argument.

11. Example
What follows is an example of an outline plan drawn up in note form. It is in response to the question ‘Do you think that depictions of sex and violence in the media should or should not be more heavily censored?’. [It is worth studying the plan in its entirety. Take note of its internal structure.]

Sample Plan

QUESTION: ‘Do you think that depictions of sex and violence in the media should or should not be more heavily censored?’

Introduction

Sex, violence, and censorship all emotive subjects

Case against censorship

1. Aesthetic: inhibits artistic talent, distorts art and truth.

2. Individual judgement: individuals have the right to decide for themselves what they watch or read. Similarly, nobody has the right to make up someone else’s mind.

3. Violence and sex as catharsis (release from tension): portrayal of these subjects can release tension through this kind of experience at ‘second hand’.

4. Violence can deter: certain films can show violence which reinforces opposition to it, e.g. – A Clockwork Orange, All Quiet on the Western Front.

5. Censorship makes sex dirty: we are too repressed about this subject, and censorship sustains the harmful mystery which has surrounded us for so long.

6. Politically dangerous: Censorship in one area can lead to it being extended to others – e.g., political ideas.

7. Impractical: Who decides? How is it to be done? Is it not impossible to be ‘correct’? Any decision has to be arbitrary

Case for censorship

1. Sex is private and precious: it should not be demeaned by representations of it in public.

2. Sex can be offensive: some people may find it so and should not have to risk being exposed to what they would find pornographic.

3. Corruption can be progressive: can begin with sex and continue until all ‘decent values’ are eventually destroyed.

4. Participants might be corrupted: especially true of young children.

5. Violence can encourage imitation: by displaying violence – even while condemning it -it can be legitimised and can also encourage imitation amongst a dangerous minority.

6. Violence is often glorified: encourages callous attitudes.

Conclusion

Case against censorship much stronger. No necessary connection between the two topics.

© Roy Johnson 2003

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Presentation of essays

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1. Presentation
The presentation of your finished work is an important part of its success. You should deliver your work as clearly and as neatly as possible. Try to observe the following general guidelines to create an attractive page layout. You may not necessarily gain marks for good presentation, but you are likely to loose them for work which is untidy.

2. Paper
Use A4 size paper. This is now accepted as the international standard for most printed and written materials in the fields of education and commerce.

3. Writing
Word-processed or typewritten work is becoming the norm. Remember that standards of presentation are being driven up all the time. Some tutors might deduct marks for bad handwriting or untidy work.

4. Margins
Leave margins of at least one-and-a-half inches at each edge of your text and at least one inch at the top and bottom of each page. This might seem over-generous at first, but it will almost certainly enhance the appearance of what you produce.

5. White space
The purpose of all this white space is to leave plenty of room in which your tutor can write detailed comments or corrections. These comments will offer you direct guidance on what you have written. This is very valuable feedback which should help you improve
the quality of your work.

6. Line Spacing
If the document is a normal essay, use one-and-a-half or double line spacing. This too will create space for tutor comment. If the document is one which will be read at greater length, such as a report or a dissertation, use normal single line spacing. The comments on such work are sometimes made on separate sheets.

7. Paragraphs
Leave extra space between paragraphs. If you follow this rule you do not need to indent the first line of the paragraph. This enhances page layout, and it will also help you to organise the structure of your argument.

8. Pages
Print on one side of a page only. Leave the other side blank. Remember to number each of the pages. This will lessen the chance of your work becoming disordered. The blank pages are available for additional comments if necessary.

9. Headings
Headings or question rubrics should be separated from the body of the essay text. Emphasis should be given by using bold or (less desirable) italics. There is no need to underline titles or headings, and do not create them in continuous capitals.

No punctuation marks (other than question marks) should be used after headings or sub-headings.

10. Titles
Choose italics to indicate the titles of book-length publications, and remember to be consistent throughout your document.

11. Presentation
When submitting your essay, keep the pages together by using one of the transparent plastic document holders which are now increasingly popular. Securing by one staple in the top left-hand corner is acceptable, but do not fasten pages together with pins. These are a hazard for all concerned.

12. Postage
If you need to post work back to your tutor, use large A4 size envelopes. Avoid folding your written work, and do not use small sized envelopes which are designed for letters.

13. Security
You might wish to take a photocopy of your work as a precaution against loss. This could be useful if you are a distance learning student using the post, or if you have a particularly long or valuable essay on which you have spent a lot of time. If you are using a word-processor, keep a backup copy of your work on disk.

14. Photocopying tip
If you have a typed essay which contains a lot of mistakes, here is a tip for improving the appearance of your work. First, blank out mistakes with correction fluid, make your alterations – then take a photocopy of the final draft. Submit the photocopy and keep the original.

© Roy Johnson 2003

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Punctuation in essays

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1. Punctuation is used in writing to indicate the natural pauses, stress, and intonation of the spoken word. It is also used to clarify the meaning of a sentence.

2. The most common marks of punctuation are the comma, the semicolon, the colon, and the full stop. These represent pauses of increasing length.

3. If you are in any doubt about punctuation, then use as little of it as possible. Write in short, direct sentences. It is perfectly possible to write clearly and efficiently using only the comma and the full stop.

4. Avoid using abbreviations (i.e., etc., &, e.g.) as well as too frequent use of the dash ( – ) and the exclamation mark (!). These all create the impression of a style which is too casual and chatty.

5. Abbreviations such as e.g. and i.e. are acceptable (and may be desirable) in your notes. However, if you wish to use any of these expressions in the body of your text, they should be written out fully in words – as for example and that is.

6. Short, clear, and simple sentences are usually more effective than those which are long and complex. If you are in any doubt at all, split up any longer sentences into two or three which are shorter. You are more likely to make your meaning clear with shorter rather than longer sentences.

7. What follows is an example of an entire paragraph which has been punctuated using only the comma and the full stop. [The subject is the structure of a paragraph.]

The central thought or main controlling idea of a paragraph is usually conveyed in what is called a topic sentence. This crucial sentence which states, summarises or clearly expresses the main theme, is the keystone of a well-built paragraph. The topic sentence may come anywhere in the paragraph, though most logically and in most cases it is the first sentence. This immediately tells readers what is coming, and leaves them in no doubt about the overall controlling idea. In a very long paragraph, the initial topic sentence may even be restated or given a more significant emphasis in its conclusion.

8. The paragraph which follows demonstrates the correct use of the comma, semicolon, colon, and full stop. These are the most common marks of punctuation.

Punctuation should always be used lightly, even sparingly, and as accurately as possible. You will discover through practice that there are three basic rules: the comma, semicolon, and colon mark increasingly long pauses; full stops are used to separate distinct sentences; and a new paragraph should always be employed to begin a new topic or point of argument.

9. The use of brackets (technical name ‘parentheses’) should be kept to a minimum. They are used to indicate a supplementary remark, an authorial aside, or a qualification of some sort. However, if they are used too frequently they interrupt the flow of the argument and create a choppy, unsettling effect.

10. Square brackets [like these] are used to indicate authorial additions. They indicate your changes to somebody else’s text, or your comments on it. For instance, if you are quoting a text which requires brief explanation, you would insert your own remarks between square brackets.

Thompson’s article then goes on to claim that ‘these dramatic upheavals [in government policy] were heralded by cabinet reshuffles earlier in the year’ (3) and it ends with an analysis of the election results.

11. If a quotation contains a mistake in the original you might wish to indicate that the error is not your own. This too is indicated by the use of square brackets.

The senior government minister who was recently acquitted of kerb-crawling claimed that at long last his ‘trails [sic] and tribulations’ were at an end.

12. Exclamation marks (!) should be used as little as possible in academic essays. They tend to create a slightly juvenile, overexcited tone. In any form of writing, the more frequently they are used the weaker becomes their effect.

13. The question mark (?) too should be used as little as possible. In fact questions should not normally be raised in essays – unless you are going to answer them. Keep in mind that most essays are posed in the form of questions which you should answer.

14. Try to minimise the use of the dash ( – ). These may be used singly to indicate an afterthought, or in pairs to insert an explanatory comment or a short list:

Everything – furniture, paintings, and books – survived the fire that broke out last week.

They should not be used as a substitute for parentheses, or mixed with them.

15. The hyphen ( – ) is a short dash used to connect prefixes to words (multi-storey car park) or when forming compounds such as ‘son-in-law’ or a ‘couldn’t-care-less’ attitude.

16. In general, the oblique stroke (/) should not be used as a substitute for words such as ‘and’, ‘plus’, and ‘or’. Try to avoid the either/or construction and such lazy (and ugly) compounds as ‘an entire social/sexual/ideological system’.

17. Note that the combination of colon-plus-dash [: – ] (which is called ‘the pointer’) is never necessary. Some people use this to indicate that a list will follow, but the colon alone should be sufficient.

18. Too frequent or uncontrolled use of these marks of punctuation tends to create a loose, sloppy style. You should normally keep them strongly in check, otherwise you might produce writing as bad as this:

What then went wrong? – how was the political impetus of the late 60’s/70’s lost that manifested itself so strikingly in the field of film study?

19. Quotations are normally shown in single quote marks – ‘like this’. When quoting speech use double quote marks:

The tutor remarked that “These conventions are designed to give your essays a pleasing and well-designed appearance”.

20. You do not need to put full stops after titles such as Mr, Dr, and Co (unless they occur at the end of a sentence). They are also not required in well-known business and company titles such as BBC and IBM. This is a practice which has now gone out of fashion.

21. Make a clear distinction between marks of punctuation such as the comma and the full stop, otherwise this may appear to produce weak grammar.

22. Many aspects of punctuation are ultimately a matter of personal preference, current fashion, and (in the case of newspapers and commercial publishers) what is known as ‘house style’. There are also minor differences in practice between the UK and the USA. The suggestions made above are based generally on common academic conventions in the UK.

© Roy Johnson 2003

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Questions in essays

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1. Any essay questions you have been asked to answer should be written out – both accurately and in full:

  • on the rough notes for your essay plan
  • on the first and final drafts of the essay itself

2. Doing this will help you to understand its key terms and its instruction terms and to keep the essay topic(s) in mind whilst you are planning and writing the essay.

3. It should also help you to relate each part of your argument to the question whilst you are in the process of writing the essay.

4. Some people find it useful to write out the question on a card. This is then kept propped up before them as a constant reference point and a reminder whilst they are planning and writing the essay.

5. When writing an essay, you should repeatedly refer back to the question and ask yourself – “Is my argument relevant to what has been asked for? Am I answering the question and following its specific instructions?”

6. Essays which do not start with the question written out in full are almost always those which wander off the subject in question. The reason for this seems to be that without the specific topics (and limits) set by questions before them, many students feel free to change the subject or treat it in a different way to that required. Do yourself a favour – always write out the question.

Asking questions

7. When writing an essay, try to avoid presenting your argument in the form of questions or ‘queries to yourself’. This too often has the effect of subtly changing the subject of the essay.

8. Avoid expressions such as – ‘but is this really true?’, ‘can we tolerate this any longer?’, or ‘but what would have happened if Thatcher had not ordered the invasion at that time?’

9. Remember that you have been asked to answer the question or discuss the issue which the essay rubric poses. It is your task to provide a response or an answer. You should be generating an argument which puts forward ideas and observations of your own on the topic(s) in question.

10. If you wish to make the point that something is a problem or that differences of opinion on the subject exist – then just say so. You should also say what those differences are, and go on to relate them to the question.

11. Be prepared to explain the problem or explore these differences of opinion, giving examples and explaining their relevance to the original question.

12. Do not include any observations on how difficult the essay question is to answer. Even if this is true, your task is to provide an answer. Remember that you should not normally include within an essay any comments on how you came to compose it. [The only exception to this is a report in which you have been asked to include such comments.]

13. In almost all cases, the golden rule is as follows:

Do not be tempted to raise questions in essays – unless you are going to answer them.

© Roy Johnson 2003

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Quotations in essays

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1. There are in general two instances when you may wish to use quotations from other writers’ work:

  • Evidence – when quoting from other sources to support your own argument(s)
  • Reference – when a text is itself the subject of your essay and you need to refer to it in your discussion

2. The conventions of accurate quotation and referencing are relatively simple, and they are based on the need for accuracy, consistency, and clarity. There are a number of slightly different systems of notation. The two most widely used are:

  • the traditional combination of numbered quotation, plus an endnote giving the source
  • the Harvard system (described separately)

3. The whole purpose of both systems is that tutors marking your work should be able, if they wish, to check the accuracy of the quotations you use.

Evidence

4. In a discussion of the development of Marx’s philosophy for example, you might argue that his work was a natural development of his predecessors, supporting your assertion by quoting David McLellan. He points out that

Marx began by paying tribute to the achievements of Feuerbach, particularly in having shown that Hegel’s philosophy was no more than a rationalised theology. (1)

5. A bracketed number is added immediately after the quotation, and the source of your quotation is given as an endnote on a separate sheet at the end of your essay. (You might wish to place the information as a footnote at the bottom of the page, though this system can become rather complicated.)

NOTES
1. David McLellan, The Thought of Karl Marx, London: Macmillan, 1971, p.26.

6. Note that this information is given in the following order, and you should remember to indicate the titles of books by using italics.

Author-Title-Publisher-Date-Page

7. The material you quote is placed between two single quotation marks if it is run in as part of your text:

this is what David McLellan calls a ‘rationalised theology’ (1) in his discussion of the relationship between Marx and Hegel

8. If the length of the quote amounts to more than three lines of your own text however, it should be indented separately, and no quote marks are necessary:

Marx began by paying tribute to the achievements of Feuerbach, particularly in having shown that Hegel’s philosophy was no more than a rationalised theology, and having discovered the true materialist approach by starting from the social relationship of man to man. (1)

9. Your own argument should normally be offered first, and you then reinforce it with quotation from an authoritative source. You are using this secondary evidence from acknowledged specialists to support your own views. Do not offer the quotation first, otherwise what should be your own argument will tend to be come more a ‘commentary’ upon it.

10. The quotations you offer should be as brief as possible to make their point. Don’t be tempted to offer long quotations from other people’s work in the hope that this will act as a substitute for your own argument. Nor should you stitch together a patchwork of quotations from a variety of sources with a few words of your own. This creates the impression that you are relying too heavily on other people’s work.

11. Sometimes in more advanced essays it might be necessary to quote longer passages. You would do this if you were going to analyse the author’s arguments in detail and at quite some length. This should only be done occasionally.

12. Each main point of your argument should be made and discussed in its own separate paragraph. This should not normally need more than one quotation to support it. Too many quotations can create the impression that you are relying too heavily on secondary sources.

Reference

13. When the subject of your essay is the discussion of a text (say, criticism of a novel or an article) you should follow the same system of notation. Directly after the first quotation you should give a full bibliographic description of the text you are discussing.

14. This information could be given within brackets in the body of your essay, but you will be developing good academic habits if you place the information as a note at the end of the essay.

15. If your essay is predominantly concerned with just one text, all subsequent quotations from it may simply be followed by page references. Simply add an explanation to the first endnote, saying – all subsequent page references are to this edition.

16. If you will be quoting from a variety of other sources in the same essay, you should number the quotations and give the sources accurately as a series of endnotes.

17. It is also possible to mix these two forms of referencing, so long as the distinctions are made clear. If your piece of work was a long essay on Bleak House for instance, it would be acceptable to identify all your quotations from the novel with page references. Quotations from other critics or sources would numbered and their sources identified as separate endnotes.

18. There must be grammatical continuity and sense maintained between any quotation and your own argument. To arrange this, it might be necessary to add or delete words from the material quoted, or to change the tense of the original. Whenever you do this, any changes should be very small. They must also be properly acknowledged.

[It was] as if she were truly loved by him, but notwithstanding this impression she regarded the man as no more than a casual acquaintance who occasionally made her laugh (p.7)

19. Square brackets are used to indicate any words which you have added in order to make the quotation fit grammatically or otherwise within your own argument.

20. If you wish to draw attention to a particular word or some part of the quotation, you should provide the emphasis by using italics (or underlining). You should then immediately admit the fact ‘as if she were loved by him’ [p.7 – my emphasis] and then carry on with what you wish to say in the remainder of your argument.

How to shorten a quote

21. In order to shorten a quotation or to remove some part of it which is not relevant to your argument, you may wish to omit a number of words. To denote this omission (which is called an ‘ellipsis’) you should use the convention of the three dots ‘…’ in the space which is left:

He had even a kind of assurance on his face … the assurance of a common man filled with pride. (p.7)

22. This device should not be used to change the sense of the original in any way, or to misrepresent its spirit: such practices are regarded as academically fraudulent.

23. The three dots denoting an ellipsis do not need to be placed at the beginning or the end of your quotation, even if you are quoting a few words from within a sentence.

24. The general convention for indicating quotation is to use single quote marks (‘unmitigated’) and to reserve double quotes marks for indicating speech (“Good gracious!” cried the duchess.)

25. When quoting conversation, follow these rules, but if it makes things easier put the words spoken within double quote marks even if they were in single quote marks in the original:

Kayerts is being even more hypocritical and self-deceiving when he ‘observe[s] with a sigh: “It had to be done”‘ (p.39)

26. If you are quoting more than once from a number of works in an essay, you can avoid confusion and save yourself the trouble of giving a full reference each time. Use either the abbreviations op. cit.. and ibid. or the short title convention.

27. Different subjects have their own conventions in this respect – but the short title system is becoming more widely used and is easier to follow. However, an enormous number of academic books have been produced using the older system, so it is worth understanding how it operates, even if you decide not to use it.

28. Using the system of Latin abbreviations, the first quotation from a text is referenced fully with an endnote. In the case of any references which follow, just give the author’s name followed by op. cit.. (which means ‘in the work already quoted’) and then the page number – as follows:

11. J.D. Bryant, The Origins of Mythology, London: Carfax Press, 1971, p.234.
12. History Today, Vol. XXXIV, No 18, p.123.
13. Bryant, op. cit., p. 387.

29. If the very next quotation is again from the same work, the abbreviation ibid.. (which means ‘in the same place’) is followed by a page reference. You do not need to give the author’s name. The sequence just given would therefore be extended:

11. J.D. Bryant, The Origins of Mythology, London: Carfax Press, 1971, p.234.
12. History Today, Vol. XXXIV, No 18, p.123.
13. Bryant, op. cit., p. 387.
14. ibid., p. 388.

30. The short title system is particularly useful for longer essays which might deal with a number of texts or different books by the same author. Second and third year undergraduate studies often require a lengthy piece of work such as this. The principle is the same one of giving full bibliographical details in the first reference. Subsequent quotations are given a reference which is composed of the author’s surname, a shortened form of the book title, and the page number. The examples shown above would therefore appear as follows:

11. J.D. Bryant, The Origins of Mythology, London: Carfax Press, 1971, p.234.
12. History Today, Vol. XXXIV, No 18, p.123.
13. Bryant, Mythology, p. 387.

31. The conventions of quoting from poetry and plays are exactly the same, but for the convenience of the reader, line numbers are given.

32. There are a number of widespread misunderstandings about the use of quotation and systems of referencing. It is worth taking the trouble to follow the conventions outlined above (or use the Harvard system). Once you have brought simplicity and clarity to the presentation of your quotations it will help to improve the appearance and credibility of your work.

What to avoid

  • You should not put page references in margins: they are placed immediately after the quotation, within your text.
  • You should not locate references as part of your own argument with expression such as ‘and we see this on page 27 where he collapses slowly … then later in the paragraph where he recovers’.
  • Ellipses are shown by three dots only [ … ] not a random number scattered across the page.
  • References and note numbers should form part of the text of your argument. They should not be added to the essay at a later stage and written into the margins or squeezed above the text as superscripts.

33. You should avoid using too many quotations and references to secondary material. In some subjects this can sometimes be required (as in a ‘review of the literature’) but in most it is not. Packing your essay with references to other people’s ideas creates the impression that you are unable to create an argument of your own. Remember that your own evidence or points should come first. Quotation should normally be offered after you have established your own argument.

34. Some people use quotations as a means of starting an introduction or rounding off the conclusion to an essay. This can give your work a touch of sparkle if the quote is well chosen. However, you should minimize the use of this strategy in the body of the essay itself. Paragraphs which begin with a quotation can weaken your argument – for two reasons.

  • First, you are not leading with your own ideas in the form of a topic sentence directly related to the question.
  • Second, the substance of your argument in what follows might give the impression of being a commentary on the secondary source quoted, rather than an answer to the original question.

© Roy Johnson 2003

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Re-writing essays

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1. Re-writing is an important part of producing successful essays and term papers. Your first draft is a temporary document which can be altered. Treat it as a rough version of your essay upon which the final version will be constructed. Don’t think it’s the best you can produce, just because it might have cost a lot of effort.

2. Most successful authors make several drafts of their work. They edit and re-write what they produce, correct mistakes, and make additions and deletions. Good writing is often the result of extensive re-writing before the final draft. Don’t imagine that you should be able to write perfectly well at your first attempt.

3. Get used to the idea of re-working your ideas and your expression. Don’t feel guilty about correcting and revising several times over.

4. A word-processor is ideally suited to working with multiple drafts. This can be done in two ways. You can choose to keep polishing and refining the same basic document, saving it to incorporate each set of changes. Alternatively, you can create and save separate drafts. These may then be compared and mixed until you have produced something to your satisfaction.

5. If necessary, you may also wish to read the work out loud to check for weak grammar. However, keep in mind that a conversational tone and style is best avoided in formal essays.

6. When producing successive drafts of your work, keep in mind the following suggestions.

Checklist for re-writing

  • Simplify any awkward grammar
  • Split up sentences which go on too long
  • Re-order paragraphs to improve your argument
  • Eliminate repetitions
  • Correct errors of spelling or punctuation
  • Create smooth transitions between paragraphs
  • Add any important ideas you have missed out
  • Delete anything which is not strictly relevant

© Roy Johnson 2003

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