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Figures of speech – understanding them

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Figures of speech – definition

figures of speech ‘Figures of speech’ is a term used to describe the devices employed to add colour, decoration, and imaginative expression to linguistic use.

redbtn They distinguish figurative or imaginative language from its use in a literal manner.

redbtn Common figures of speech include the following:

alliteration, assonance, cliché, metaphor, metonymy, onomatopoeia, oxymoron, paradox, simile, synecdoche

redbtn These are also known as ‘rhetorical devices’.

Examples

Literal – He ran quickly down the street.

Simile – He ran like a hare down the street.

Metaphor – He hared down the street.

Use

redbtn Many people use these devices quite unconsciously as part of everyday communication.

redbtn For instance, a statement such as ‘His plan was given the thumbs down’ uses a figurative term, not a description of people waggling their thumbs. [It dates back to a Roman emperor’s decision on a gladiator’s fate.]

redbtn If we say ‘I’ve told him a thousand times!’ this is not literally true. We are using a figure of speech [hyperbole, or exaggeration] to make a point.

redbtn NB! Don’t try too hard to use figures of speech. They’ll come naturally.

redbtn Figures of speech or rhetorical devices are present in all cultures. It seems that it is in the very nature of linguistic discourse for speakers to act creatively. Indeed, it is that creativity in language use which ultimately divides language use in humans and animals.

redbtn A child begins to be creative by using various figures of speech at the very beginning of the acquisition process. Words such as ‘bang’, ‘smack’, ‘moo’, and ‘baa’ are all onomatopoeic figures of speech common to a child’s early vocabulary.

redbtn It is useful to contemplate a continuum of which the two opposites are literal and non-literal in terms of linguistic expression. We could envisage a statement of fact towards one extreme and a metaphor towards the other.

redbtn The statement of fact might be This is a wooden door.

redbtn An example of a metaphor might be The sunshine of your smile.

redbtn These two utterances comprise five words each, yet the metaphor says much more than the factual statement. Not only does it say more but it speaks of vast and abstract elements such as love, the sun, gesture, happiness, human warmth, pleasure and possibly more.

redbtn Figures of speech are often used to express abstract emotional or philosophical concepts. The figure of speech attaches the abstract concept to a material object and thus is instrumental in creating powerful and dynamic communication.

redbtn Original figures of speech are valued in both speech and in writing. We respect the ability to generate these. Politicians for instance often use figures of speech, and are variously successful with this practice.

redbtn Churchill’s image of ‘the iron curtain’ has stayed with us for over fifty years, although the phenomenon it described no longer exists. ‘The cold war’ superseded it, during which it was the threat of someone ‘pressing the button’ which was on everyone’s mind.

redbtn The ‘rhetorical question’ is a figure of speech favoured by politician and lay person alike. It is a powerful device because, although it has the appearance of being a question, it often acts as a form of persuasion or criticism.

redbtn ‘Is our country in danger of becoming a hot-bed of sleaze?’ we might hear a politician ask. ‘Are we going to stand by and let these atrocities continue?’ Listening to our car radio we might mentally frame an answer to this kind of question – or at least we might be drawn into contemplating the issue.

redbtn At a more domestic level we might be asked ‘What time do you call this?’ or ‘How many times have I told you …?’ These are questions which actively discourage any answer. They are a form of rebuke which is an established ritual. As competent language users, we know them and participate in the ritual – by not answering, or responding to the ‘real’ (unstated) criticism.

redbtn Another figure of speech which spans the social spectrum is the cliché. These are often derided, and the word itself has become a pejorative term. However, the cliché is very much ‘alive and kicking’, especially in the context of football. ‘Over the moon’ about a result and ‘gutted’ to hear the news, are just two such figures of speech heard almost daily over the popular media.

redbtn The cliché proves its function by its prolific use. Perhaps it is its over-use, or its application in inappropriate contexts which may cause distaste.

redbtn Figures of speech are also known as images. This indicates their function well. The outcome of using them is that the listener or the reader receives a multi-dimensional communication. Lewis Carroll coined the term ‘portmanteau’ for words which are packed with layers of meaning. Although Carroll’s usage is slightly different from that of figures of speech, it does illustrate that we have a strong drive as language users to convey meaning colourfully and economically.

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© Roy Johnson 2003

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Metaphors – how to understand them

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Metaphors – definition

metaphors Metaphors are figures of speech in which one thing is compared to another — either directly or by implication.

Examples

redbtn Common metaphors in speech:

  • Those people are the salt of the earth.
  • She worked her fingers to the bone.
  • It was a real pea soup morning.
  • They were inundated with orders.

redbtn Well known literary metaphors:

  • Now is the winter of our discontent
  • Life’s but a walking shadow
  • I am the way, the truth and the life
  • The girl with kaleidoscope eyes
Use

redbtn A metaphor often demands that the listener or reader make a powerful leap of the imagination.

redbtn Some metaphors are commonly recognised whilst others are uniquely and even spontaneously created.

redbtn Imaginative writing such as poetry, prose, and drama often create their special effects by use of metaphor.

redbtn Metaphors are often used in advertising and in political speeches.

redbtn One important feature of metaphor is that a significant and comprehensive image may be created by a few key words.

redbtn A metaphor can be created by the article, noun, verb, adjective or any other part of speech.

redbtn NB! In a metaphor two things are said to be the same, whereas in a simile they are only like each other.

redbtn It’s useful to see the concept of metaphor as part of a scale which runs from the literal to the non-literal use of language.

redbtn A literal statement is one which refers to the actual material world in plain terms. For instance — ‘This table is made of wood’.

redbtn At the other extreme, and in the words of a popular song, we find the statement:

‘The sun is a big yellow duster, polishing the blue, blue sky’

redbtn This makes a much bigger demand on our imagination and on our willingness to step outside the rational, literal world.

redbtn This metaphor can be analysed as follows. The sun is being compared to a duster. This idea is interesting because dusters are often yellow like the sun. Further, just as the sun appears to move in the sky, removing grey clouds, a duster moves to polish a surface and clear it of dust. In the context of a pop song, the idea is witty and entertaining in a lighthearted way.

redbtn Contrast this more serious metaphor:

Now does he feel
His filthy murders sticking on his hands

redbtn This is from Macbeth. The image is extremely vivid as the murderer’s sense of guilt is conveyed to the audience by combining the abstract guilt and the material sticky blood.

redbtn Metaphor is extremely economic communication. Several layers of meaning can be conveyed at the same time.

redbtn Advertisers make effective use of metaphor and other images because they have a restricted amount of space, and this space is very costly. A phrase such as ‘the sunshine breakfast’ is more effective than a statement which might read: ‘Have our cereal for your breakfast and you’ll enjoy it. It will give you energy and nutrition because the corn’s been grown in a sunny climate.’

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© Roy Johnson 2003

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Onomatopoeia – how to understand it

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Onomatopoeia – definition

onomatopoeia Onomatopoeia is a figure of speech in which the sound of a word echoes the thing it describes.

redbtn It is a form of symbolism in sound.

Examples
buzz pop bang
swish cuckoo hissing
burble twitter sizzle
Use

redbtn Onomatopoeia is used for emphasis or stylistic effect.

redbtn It is featured very heavily in children’s rhymes and poetry in general.

redbtn It is also used extensively in advertising, as in the slogan

‘Snap, crackle, pop!’

redbtn NB! ‘Onomatopoeia’ is derived from the Greek term ‘make a word’.

redbtn ‘Onomatopoeia’ is the only example in English of a word which has a direct and intrinsic connection with the thing it describes.

redbtn For example, if we say that the boy made a ‘splash’ jumping into the pool, the noun ‘splash’ actually imitates the thing to which it refers.

redbtn ‘Splash’ is not simply an arbitrary code for the sound made when someone jumps into a swimming pool. It is an aural echo of that very thing.

redbtn The very concrete nature of onomatopoeia needs to be stressed. This applies in most cases where a word imitates a sound which we all recognise.

redbtn The English language is a coded system in which most words have a completely arbitrary link with the object or state which they describe.

redbtn For example, the word ‘house’ is a code term for the building with rooms in which we live. Similarly, ‘fear’ is a four-letter code for the unpleasant sensation of acute apprehension. [These terms are quite different in other languages.]

redbtn Onomatopoeia is thus an exceptional case because the word has at least an aural similarity with the thing it describes.

redbtn Perhaps the original symbols which comprise a pictographic language such as Chinese can be seen as a useful visual analogy with onomatopoeia. Chinese characters derive from pictures of the things they describe. They therefore have an intrinsic connection with them, just as the English words such as ‘splash’ ‘plop’ ‘bang’ ‘tinkle’ are the auditory equivalent.

redbtn Studying onomatopoeia thus highlights the ideographic nature of English and to take this to a purist extreme, we see that even the most literal use of language is only literal in a relative sense because the words themselves are at a semantic distance from the thing to which they refer.

redbtn We learn to connect the word ‘house’ with the building we call home, but we take it completely on trust because there is no essential connection there between word and phenomenon.

redbtn The same principle applies to every unit of meaning except onomatopoeic words and for that reason alone onomatopoeia is of interest to linguists.

redbtn Animal calls are evoked onomatopoeically in all languages. For example ‘cock-a-doodle-do!’ is conventionally the English representation for the crowing of a cock. Interestingly, the French represent the same phenomenon as ‘cocorico!’, which is significantly different, although logic tells us that the rooster’s cry is constant across the world.

redbtn This variation in the representation of animal calls has helped researchers into language change to chart developments in the English language. In ancient poetry, for instance, if the word ‘go’ was rhymed with ‘cuckoo’, we could be fairly sure that the pronunciation of the word ‘go’ had changed rather than the birdsong.

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© Roy Johnson 2003

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Oxymoron – how to understand it

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Oxymoron – definition

oxymoron Oxymoron is a figure of speech in which two incongruous or apparently contradictory words are combined to make a special effect.

redbtn An oxymoron is a contracted paradox.

Examples
  • He has a strong weakness for drink.
  • I’ll try the sweet and sour duck.
  • She is something of a cheerful pessimist
  • Their affair is an open secret.
Use

redbtn Oxymoron is used for emphasis or stylistic effect.

redbtn It’s often used in advertising.

redbtn NB! By the way, it’s pronounced ‘ox-ymoron’ — not ‘oxy-moron’.

redbtn The oxymoron is closely related to antithesis and paradox. Both of these are figures of speech.

redbtn An oxymoron is ‘a contracted paradox’. That is, the paradox is an apparently contradictory statement; whereas the contradiction in an oxymoron is reduced to just two antithetical terms.

redbtn It is the sort of playful and often witty effect used by those who wish to draw attention to their command of language.

redbtn The device is much-loved by poets, because it enables them to express complex ideas in a very compressed form:

Where grey-beard mirth and smiling toil retired
The toiling pleasure sickens into pain

[Oliver Goldsmith]

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© Roy Johnson 2003

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Paradox – how to understand it

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Paradox – definition

paradox Paradox is a figure of speech in which a statement appears to be self-contradictory, but contains something of a truth.

Examples
  • The child is father to the man.
  • Cowards die many times before their death.
Use

redbtn Paradox is used for emphasis or stylistic effect.

redbtn The paradox is closely related to oxymoron — which is sometimes defined as ‘a contracted paradox’.

redbtn That is, the paradox is an apparently contradictory statement; whereas the contradiction in an oxymoron is reduced to just two antithetical terms – as in ‘living dead’ or ‘open secret’.

redbtn Paradox was much-used by the Metaphysical poets of the senteenth century — of whom John Donne is perhaps the best known. The following example is taken from one of his religious sonnets in which he appeals to God to strengthen his beliefs. He packs three paradoxes into these last four lines:

Divorce mee, untie, or breake that knot againe,
Take mee to you, imprison mee, for I
Except you enthrall mee, never shall be free,
Nor ever chast, except you ravish mee.

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© Roy Johnson 2003

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Similes – how to understand them

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Similes – definition

similes A simile is a figure of speech in which one thing is directly compared with another.

redbtn The comparison is usually signalled by the use of the terms ‘as’ or ‘like’ or ‘such as’.

Examples

He was as strong as a lion

It shot out like a bullet

“Music is such sweet thunder”

Use

redbtn Similes are part of everyday speech. They may be used consciously or unconsciously.

redbtn They are often used in imaginative writing such as fiction and poetry to clarify and enhance an image.

redbtn NB! To say that a girl looks like Marilyn Monroe is not a simile. That’s because two similar things are being directly equated to each other.

redbtn But to say that ‘My heart is like a singing bird’ is a simile. That’s because the two things being likened to each other are quite different – and so an imaginative comparison is being made.

redbtn A simile requires less of an imaginative leap than does a metaphor. A simile states that A is like B, whereas a metaphor suggests that A actually is B.

redbtn The simile is one common component of imagery. This is the process of evoking ideas, people, places, feelings and various other connections in a vivid and effective way.

redbtn Imagery is used in both written and spoken communication in many varieties of form, from advertising to poetry and from chatting to speech-making.

redbtn Simile, metaphor, and symbol are the main types of image making. The result is that communication acquires a creative and vital quality which somehow springs from the essential act of comparison.

redbtn So, a raindrop can become a crystal, fear can become an abyss, and jealousy a monster.

redbtn By employing imagery, we interpret the material world and use language to transmit our vision.

 

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© Roy Johnson 2004

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Synecdoche – how to understand it

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Synecdoche – definition

synecdoche Synecdoche is a figure of speech in which a part of something is substituted for the whole thing.

redbtn The part chosen is usually important or essential, and thus the whole (although implied) is easily recognised or understood.

Examples

In the expression ‘United won the match’, the term ‘United’ stands for ‘Manchester United Football Club’ [or Leeds, or some other team].

In the expression ‘Give us this day our daily bread’ the term ‘bread’ stands for the meals eaten each day.

Use

redbtn Synecdoche [pronounced sin-eck-doh-key, by the way] is part of everyday speech. It is usually used quite unconsciously.

redbtn It is often used in imaginative writing such as fiction and poetry to clarify and enhance an image.

redbtn NB! If you can’t remember the difference between synecdoche and metonymy – don’t worry. You’re not alone.

redbtn In the expression ‘All hands on deck!’, the term ‘hands’ stands for ‘mariners’.

redbtn The term ‘hand’ has been chosen to represent the whole expression ‘able-bodied seaman’ [or in PC (politically correct) terms ‘sea-person’] because that is the most important feature required for work on deck.

redbtn In the expression ‘United won the match’, the term ‘United’ (in the case of Manchester United Football Club) might not appear to be the most important or essential item to represent the whole.

redbtn However, Manchester has two football teams — the other being Manchester City Football Club. A supporter of MUFC would therefore be selecting the one important lingustic feature which distinguished his team from the other fotball club.

redbtn The parts of the name ‘Manchester’ and ‘Football Club’ would be implied by the speaker, and understood by the listener.

redbtn Similarly, a supporter of Manchester City Football Club would say ‘City won the match’.

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© Roy Johnson 2004

English Language 3.0 program
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