Page layout Archives

Finer Points in the Spacing and Arrangement of Type

June 15, 2009 by Roy Johnson

advanced topics in type design and good page layout

As the title implies, this is not a beginner’s book on typography. Most of the techniques discussed by Geoffrey Dowding, although sound and well presented, may not be beneficial to the reader without a working knowledge of design and type. Experienced designers, be forewarned; Dowding is unavoidably influential in this tome – the result of his lifetime of experience in the typographic arts. At the same time, he cannot escape that experience. He is an unabashed traditionalist, a master of the craft.

So if you think you might already be too sensitive to type and layout, don’t read this book. I’m kidding, of course, but let me explain: illustrating with examples, Dowding discusses typographical layout solutions which often suffer from lack of attention to detail, then provides corrected versions for comparison. This method combined with a concise writing style and his authoritative voice, will undoubtedly heighten your typo-senses.

You will begin to see mistakes where you read in blissful ignorance before. You will know why a given passage is harder to read than another (and no, it’s not necessarily the writer’s fault). And you’ll begin to realize – there are lots of layouts floating around out there that could use more than a little tweaking.

I don’t think that everything he proposes is necessarily right. For example, in the context of setting type for text – the omission of spaces after full points when followed by the capitals A, J, T, V, and Y. Although this is still logically consistent with his other principles, a possible sacrifice of legibility for color defeats what he wanted to achieve.

Still, I enjoyed reading this book and can safely say I will never look at another paragraph, sentence, or word, quite the same again. Having never seen the previous editions of this book, I cannot compare them, but this revised edition suits me just fine. The pages were faithfully composed employing Dowding’s own principles, which makes ‘Finer Points’ a pleasure to behold.

Buy the book at Amazon UK

Buy the book at Amazon US

Geoffrey Dowding, Finer Points in the Spacing and Arrangement of Type (Revised edition), Vancouver: Hartley & Marks, 1995, pp.96, ISBN 0881791199

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How to create good page layout

September 15, 2009 by Roy Johnson

basic principles of effective page design

Good page layout
More and more people today are using computers for essay and project writing. The advantages for improved presentation are dramatic. Once most people have started to enjoy the facilities computers offer for editing, rewriting, and presentation, they often wonder how they ever managed without them. Typewriters become a thing of the past.

Editing
The main advantage of the computer is that you can rewrite and edit what you produce. You might start out with just a sketchy outline, but you can add extra examples, delete mistakes, and move paragraphs around. You can build up to the finished product in as many stages as you wish.

First drafts
At first you might want to carry on producing the first draft of your work in hand-written form. You type it into the computer’s memory or onto disk. Then you can edit what you have produced, either on screen or by printing out your document. This is quite common for beginners. Most people abandon the handwriting stage in a gradual manner.

On-screen editing
At first, you will probably want to see what you have written printed out as soon as possible. As you gain experience however, you will probably edit on screen and only print out the finished version of your work. WYSIWYG word-processors (What You See Is What You Get) allow you to see on screen what the finished document will look like.

Presentation
The most important element of presentation is the layout of the page. No matter what the content of your work, it will look better if is given plenty of space in which to ‘breathe’. You should leave plenty of blank space around what you write. Do not attempt to cram the maximum amount of text onto each page. If you are using any sort of pictures, tables or visually quoted material, let it stand well clear of the text.

Margins
Learn how to set generously wide margins. One inch minimum at the top and bottom of the page is normal. One inch or more at each side. If your work is going to be presented in a folder or binder, you should also allow at least 0.25″ ‘binding offset’ (also called a ‘gutter’).

Columns
If your piece of work is anything like a newsletter, a magazine, or a popular report, you might wish to use multi-column layout. On A4-sized paper, two columns will probably be appropriate, but you might choose three if you reduce the size of the left and right margins. If you find working in columns difficult, prepare your text separately first. Your final task will then simply be one of laying out the page.

Line spacing
The computer and printer will produce your work very neatly, but will probably do so by using single line spacing. Even though you are likely to be pleased by the neatness, learn how to set for one-and-a-half or double line spacing. This will give you more opportunity to create good layout.

Fonts
For the main text of your work, choose a font with serifs such as Times New Roman or Garamond. Avoid the use of sans-serif fonts such as Arial or Helvetica. These make continuous reading difficult. Unless your work is connected with fine arts, advertising, or graphic design, avoid using fancy display fonts (such as Poster or ShowTime) altogether: these are designed for advertising and shopfront display.

Fontsize
In general, the size of your chosen font should be eleven or twelve points. This will make your work easy to read, and the font will appear proportionate to its use when printed out on A4 paper. You might wish to use large font sizes of fourteen-point size for subheadings, and sixteen or eighteen point for main headings. Long quotations (where necessary) are normally set in eleven or ten-point size.

Font variety
Although you may have a wide range of fonts at your disposal, you should keep the number you use to a minimum. Two or at the very most three different fonts will be enough for most pieces of work. On this issue, graphic designers have an expression – “More is less” – which means that the greater the number of different fonts used on a document, so the less effective they become.

Justification
Most word-processors will produce your work with the text ‘fully justified’ – that is, with both left and right hand edges aligned. This will produce a neat overall impression. However, it can cause ‘rivers’ of white space to appear in the text, caused by irregular spaces between the words. You may wish to choose left-justification (like this paragraph). This will leave the right-hand edge ragged, but the spaces between the words will be regular. If in doubt, full justification usually offers more overall neatness on the page.

Indentation
If your work contains items such as numbered lists, columns of figures, or anything else which is set off from the left hand margin, always use the TAB key or the INDENT command to position the item. Never use the spacebar: this will not help you to achieve precise alignment. ‘The word-processor is not a typewriter’. Take full advantage of any facilities for indenting to regularise your presentation of quotations. Double indentation is for those longer quotations that would otherwise occupy more than two or three lines of the text in your work. Try to be consistent throughout.

Quotations
Long quotations (where necessary) should normally be set in the same font as the body of your essay. The size however may be reduced by one or two points. This draws attention to the fact that it is a quotation from a secondary source. Alternatively (and in addition) it may be set in a slightly different font – but don’t use too many different fonts.

Paragraphs
If you use double spaces between each paragraph, you do not need to indent the first line. [This is only necessary when there are no spaces between the paragraphs.] One good reason for having the double spaces, apart from its looking more attractive, is that it will help you to ‘see’ each paragraph as a separate part of your argument or discussion.

Page numbering
Learn how to switch on automatic page numbering for all your essays and projects. The numbers should normally be placed at the bottom of the page, either in the middle or in the right-hand corner. You may also place page numbers in page ‘footers’ – that is a piece of text which occurs at the bottom of every page.

Spelling
If your word-processor has a spell-checking facility, then use it before you print out your document. But remember that it is unlikely to recognise specialist terms and unusual names such as Schumacher, Derrida, or Nabokov. These will not be in the processor’s memory. You will have to check the correct spelling of these yourself, as you will any other unusual words. Remember too that a spell-checker will not make any distinction between They washed their own clothes and They washed there own clothes, because the word there is spelt correctly even though it is being used ungrammatically.

Grammar-checkers
If your word-processor has a grammar checker, use it before you finalise your document. These devices are very useful for spotting over-long sentences, awkward syntax, missing verbs, and all sorts of grammatical errors. You might find them annoying to use at first, but the best of them will offer you advice and potted lessons as well as corrections of any errors. Persist, but be careful: even machines can sometimes be wrong.

Book titles
Use the italics or the bold commands of a word processor to indicate the titles of books – but remember to be consistent throughout your document. A.J.P. Taylor’s The Origins of the Second World War is just as acceptable as Margaret Mead’s Coming of Age in Samoa though the former is more usual and preferable.

Footnoting
Advanced users may well be tempted to take advantage of automatic footnoting facilities. Word-processors can certainly remove all the headaches from this procedure. However, do not clutter your text with them just for the sake of showing off your command of the technology. Numbered endnotes are much easier to use and to control.

Hyphenation
If your word-processor automatically hyphenates words at the end of a line, take care to read through the work before you make your final print-out. Eliminate any howlers such as ‘the-rapist’ and ‘thin-king’. This needs to be done with extra care if you are using newspaper columns.

Widows and orphans
In laying out your pages, avoid creating paragraphs which start on the last line of a page or which finish on the first of the next. These are called, in the jargon of word-processing, ‘Widows and Orphans’. The solution to this problem is to control the number of lines on a page so as to push the text forward. An extra-large gap at the bottom of a page looks better than an isolated single (or even double) line of text.

Titles
Titles, main headings, or essay questions may be presented in either a slightly larger font size than the body of the text. They may also be given emphasis by the use of bold. You should not use continuous capital letters in a title, heading, or question. This looks typographically ugly. Do not underline headings: this makes them more difficult to read.

Emphasis
Although many people think it is good idea, there should be no need to underline something to give it emphasis. If you have a title, heading or a question at the head of a piece of work, then a larger font, and the use of bold and double spacing will be enough to give it emphasis and importance. Underlining any text makes it harder to read.

Italics
Italics are normally used to show emphasis – when something is very important. They are also used to indicate a word of foreign origin, such as ouvrier (French – workman) or nihil (Latin – nothing). Book titles should be shown in italics – such as War and Peace. Smaller pieces of work such as stories, articles, and poems are shown by putting the title in single quotation marks. For instance, ‘The Fall of the House of Usher’.

Print-preview
Use the print-preview facility to help you lay out the contents of a page before you print it. Get used to the practice of switching between draft mode and print-preview. In draft mode, you view the text in detail and you can make fine adjustments to what you have written. In print-preview, you have a one-page overview of your text. Make sure that your text is properly aligned and laid out on the page. Check the spacing of paragraphs and the appearance of your text. Ensure that your titles, subtitles, and any section headings are set at the correct fontsize and weight.

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How to present documents

February 16, 2013 by Roy Johnson

document structure and presentation skills

How to present documents effectively

When you have finished writing and editing an important document, you need to present it in the best possible way. You should create what are called the front and back materials.

The front and back materials comprise any or all of the following parts.

Front materials

Title page
Preface
Contents page
Executive summary
Introduction

Back materials

Notes
Bibliography
Glossary
Appendices

Front material

The title page

The title page should contain:

The title of the document
The date
The writer’s name
The recipient’s name

Example

Proposal

Installing new records system

for

Bindweed Mowers Ltd

Written by John Atherton

10 September 2010

For the attention of Jane Brown

Preface

A preface is a short preliminary text which puts the main document into a specific context. Its purpose is to prepare the reader for the main content of the report or proposal that follows.It is a form of ‘introduction’ to the main document. A preface may not always be necessary – but here’s an example:

Preface

This report is based on the research carried out by Myers and Carrston in 1991. Their findings were so revolutionary in the field of preventative medicine that we could not ignore the need to consider genetic modification as a way forward.

We trust that the reader will understand that since the start of the research project, there have been significant shifts resulting from both political and scientific pressures in this field of scientific development.

Contents page

The function of the contents page is to provide an easy way of locating the sections, chapters and any other parts of the document.

The titles of the various sections and chapters should be listed accurately and consistently along with the relevant page numbers.

The titles should appear on the left of the page and the numbers on the right.

Contents

Introduction

Section I

Ledwards and Smith
Recent decline of the industry
The recovery period

Section 2

Questions for the Ministry
Death of sixteen patients

Executive summary

An executive summary is sometimes included at the beginning of a long report or proposal. It gives an overview of the main points contained in the longer document.

For instance in a report, the findings might be summarised along with some recommendations for further action.

In a proposal, the idea, along with items such as the costings or the main problems might be summarised.

The audience for an executive summary is people who needs to be aware in outline of what is going on. These people do not need to know the detail, and so can assimilate the main points or issues without needing to read the whole of a long document.

Introduction

An introduction should provide a context for rest of the document. It should set the scene for what is to follow.

It might provide an explanation of why the document has been written; the topics which will be under consideration, and its overall purpose.

Back material

Glossary

A glossary is needed in a document which uses a lot of technical issues. Words which are specialist or technical jargon are listed, usually in alphabetical order, each with a brief definition.

The glossary can also be used to explain acronyms used in the place of companies or organisations – such a NWBF = National Wholesale Bakers Federation.

Appendix

An appendix contains material which supports or expands on material in the body of a report.

survey materials such as questionnaires
raw data gathered in the study
regulations or statutes
illustrations, maps, or diagrams

Bibliography

A bibliography lists the publication details of any work referred to during the preparation of the report, such as books or periodicals.

Each bibliographic entry contains the following information – in this sequence

Bibliography – books

name of author(s), surname
full title of book (in italics)
series (if any)
volume number (if applicable)
edition (if not the first)
city of publication
publishers name
publication date

Jones, Seymour, and M.Bruce Cohen, The Emerging Business: Managing for Growth, New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1983.

Bibliography – periodicals

name of author(s), surname
title of article (in inverted commas)
name of periodical (in italics)
volume or date or both
page numbers which contain the article

Johnson, Donna. ‘Why Users Need Concepts’, Data Training, November 1986, pp 37-40.

Notes

Notes are sometimes needed to contextualise or to clarify points made in the body of the document. These are sometimes shown at the bottom of the page (as a footnote) at the end of a chapter (as endnotes) or in a section at the end of the whole document.

The item concerned is preceded by a number which corresponds with the relevant number in the note section. In terms of usability, footnotes are the most convenient for readers. (1)

However, they disrupt the appearance of a page, and for that reason the modern tendency is to use endnotes.

NOTES
1. Most word-processors can now arrange any footnotes automatically.

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Page layout – how to display writing

September 9, 2009 by Roy Johnson

free pages from our English Language software program

Page layout – definition

Page layout is the physical organisation of text on the page, the screen, or any other medium of written communication.

It refers to the visual conventions of arranging text to assist reading and comprehension.

Examples

Good layout includes effective use of the following common features:

page margins
indentation
paragraphs
line spacing
justification
centring

type style
type size
italics
bold
capitals
underlining

Use

There are conventions of layout in written communication in English. Some of these are based purely on function, and some on tradition.

The modern trend is towards layout which results in fast and easy reading of the page.

Layout complements content in efficient communication. It facilitates the reading and the comprehensibility of the text.

NB! Readers are affected by these conventions, even though they may not be aware of them.

The conventions of layout for most writing (printed or written) are designed to make comprehension easier for readers. They are as follows:

text is surrounded by margins on the page
continuous writing is divided into paragraphs
paragraphs are separated by double spaces, or by indentation
sentences are separated by a single space
emphasis is indicated by italics or bold
headings are indicated by larger type size or emphasis [or both]
headings and sub-headings used to create logical organisation
indentation and spacing is used to present lists and diagrams

All this might seem rather obvious, but many people have difficulty reproducing or controlling these conventions.

These ‘rules’ apply to all languages which are written from left to right, and from the top to the bottom of the page. [Some languages are not!]

Most of these conventions can be reproduced in handwriting, as well as by typewriting and word-processing.

Faulty or inappropriate layout can seriously affect the legibility of text, and thus its comprehension.

Research shows that readers assimilate the content of a page in the following order:

pictures
diagrams
tables
bulleted lists
headings
continuous text

Layout choices. For every type of written communication, the writer has a choice to make regarding layout. An awareness of the conventions appropriate to the contents will make the writing more effective.

The layout for personal letters is known and used by most writers, as is the convention for addressing the accompanying envelope. Elements of the address are arranged on separate lines:

Mrs J Fingerbottom
14 Oildrum Lane
Accrington
Lancashire

Literary texts

Literary texts (stories, novels, biographies) are produced with layout conventions of which most people are unconsciously aware:

serifed type face
type size large enough for the normally sighted
between ten and twenty words per line
numbered pages and chapters
generous margins

Business documents

Contemporary business documents are often laid out following conventions which arise from economic considerations. [Time spent deciphering memos, reports, and proposals represent financial loss.]

A typical business document might have the following features:

sub-headings in the left margin opposite related paragraphs
small blocks of text with no more than five sentences
blocks of text separated by horizontal lines or double-spacing
extensive use of bulleted lists
document structure reflected in type size and emphasis

Newspapers

Newspapers have very distinctive conventions of layout which make them easily recognisable:

banner headlines in bold sans-serif type
body text in small serifed type
text arranged in narrow columns
text aligned with full justification
all page elements arranged on a ‘grid’
pictures and diagrams straddling columns
boxes and borders surrounding some page elements

Lists of items are easier to read if they are laid out vertically, rather than across the page as a line of text.

Tables are useful when lists become more complex than a collection of items. For instance, bus and train time-tables would be very difficult to use if the information were given as continuous prose.

One important feature of layout related to all text is the choice between serif and sans-serif type.

The serif is a tiny swirl at the tip and foot of letters. The serif aids the reading process by leading the eye from one letter to the next. These occur in type sets [fonts] such as Times Roman, Bookman, and Classroom.

Serif type is used for any substantial passages of text which will be read continuously.

Sans-serif type on the other hand is plain. The edges of letters are straight, and devoid of swirls or serifs. Arial, Helvetica, and Courier are all sans-serif type sets.

Sans-serif is used for impact in short sequences of text which will not require continuous reading. It is often used to effect in titles, headings, and sub-headings.

Children begin to write in sans-serif characters and then graduate to using joined-up writing [which is equivalent to the serifed type style]. Some youngsters find it very difficult to make this transition and continue to write using separate letters — which they call ‘printing’.

Writing of this kind is very difficult to read, and it is discouraged in schools and colleges. This is because it obscures such features as capitalisation. It is a more laborious process for the writer to produce and makes understanding more difficult for the reader.

Two common faults of layout are the use of continuous capital letters in headings, and the use of underlining for emphasis. Both of these features make the text more difficult to read.

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Page layout for essays

August 23, 2009 by Roy Johnson

sample from HTML program and PDF book

1. Academic page layout – using word-processors
Modern word-processors allow you to create attractive page layout for your documents. The impression made by your essays or reports will be enhanced by good design. You should practise controlling the basic functions of your word-processor to improve the presentation of text on your pages.

2. Margins
The default settings of most word-processors create a margin of one inch at each edge of the page. You should try increasing your side margins (say, to one-and-a-half inches). This not only improves the appearance of your work on an A4 page, it leaves more room in which your tutor can write comments.

3. Fonts
For the main text of your essay, choose a font with serifs (‘Times Roman’, ‘Garamond’, or ‘Schoolbook’).

These make the text easier to read. Avoid sans-serif fonts such as ‘Arial’ or ‘Helvetica’: these make continuous reading more difficult. They may be used for headings however.

Display fonts (such as ‘Poster’ or ‘Showtime’) should not be used at all for academic work. They are designed for advertising.

4. Font Size
In most cases, the size of font chosen should be eleven or twelve points. This will be easy to read, and will appear proportionate to its use, when printed out on A4 paper.

5. Quotes
Where you have quotations of more than three lines, they should normally be set in the same font as the body of the text, but the size may be reduced by one or two points. This draws attention to the fact that it is a quotation from a secondary source.

6. Spacing
Your word-processor will have single line-spacing as its default. This will produce a neat page. However, your text may be more usefully laid out in double line-spacing. This will leave more room for tutor comment.

7. Paragraphs
If you decide to stay with single line-spacing, put a double space between each paragraph. (In this case you do not need to indent the first line of the paragraph.)

8. Justification
You have two choices. Full justification arranges your text in a straight line on both the left and right-hand margins Left-justified will be straight only on the left, leaving the text ‘ragged’ on the right. This has the advantage of producing more regular word-spacing – but full justification will probably have a better visual effect overall.

9. Indentation
Never adjust your indentation using the spacebar. This will create very uneven layout when you print your document. Always use the TAB stop and the INDENT key. Remember that a TAB stop indents just the first line of a paragraph. The INDENT key will indent the whole of the paragraph.

10. Indenting quotes
Take full advantage of indenting to regularise your presentation of
quotations. Use double indentation for those longer quotations which would otherwise occupy more than two or three lines of the text in your essay. Try to be consistent throughout.

11. Indenting paragraphs?
If you do not show paragraphs by double-spacing, you will need to indent the first line of each new paragraph.

12. Italics and bold
Use italics for the titles of books and journals. (Also use it for emphasis.) Bold is best reserved for headings and sub-headings.

13. Headings
Headings, sub-headings, or essay questions may be presented in either a slightly larger font size than the body of the text, or they may be given emphasis by the use of bold.

14. Capitals
Don’t use continuous capital letters in a heading. This looks unsightly, and it makes the heading difficult to read.

15. Underlining
There is no need to underline headings or titles [even though many people think it is good practice]. If something is a title, a heading or a question at the top of an essay, then the larger font, or the use of bold should be enough to give it emphasis and importance. Underlining just makes text harder to read.

16. Page numbering
Use the automatic page-numbering feature to place numbers on all the pages of your essays. If for some reason you find this problematic (which many do), add the numbers by hand.

17. Hyphenation
If your word-processor automatically hyphenates words at the end of a line, take care to read through the work and eliminate any howlers such as ‘the-rapist’ and ‘thin-king’.

18. Widows and orphans
In laying out your pages, you should avoid creating paragraphs which start on the last line of a page or which finish on the first of the next. (These are called, in the jargon of the printing trade, ‘Widows and Orphans’). The solution to this problem is to control the number of lines on a page so as to push the text forward. An extra space at the bottom of a page is more acceptable than just one or two lines of text at the top of the next.

19. Page density
Do not create pages which are dense with closely-packed text. These will have an unattractive and off-putting effect.

20. Form
Don’t try to imitate the appearance of a printed book. Remember that an academic essay serves a different function. Leave plenty of white space around your work, and let the text ‘speak’ to the reader.

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