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Dialect – how to understand it

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Dialect – definition

dialect The term dialect refers to any variety of a language used by a group of speakers.

redbtn It refers to the content of the utterance rather than the pronunciation.

Examples

redbtn There are two main types of dialect in English:

  • Regional varieties of speech which relate to a particular geographical area.
  • Standard English which is used by speakers and writers in any area.
Use

redbtn The term dialect used to refer to deviations from Standard English which were used by groups of speakers.

redbtn Political awareness has now given us the current concept of dialect as any developed speech system.

redbtn Standard English itself is therefore now considered to be a dialect of English — equal in status with regional dialects such as Scottish or social dialects such as Black English.

redbtn The concept of dialect embraces all aspects of a language from grammar to vocabulary.

redbtn NB! Dialect is not the same thing as accent.

redbtn Linguists take a descriptive view of all language phenomena. They do not promote the notion of the superiority of Standard English.

redbtn This is not to say that Standard English and Received Pronunciation are considered equal to other forms by the majority of speakers, but certainly attitudes are becoming more liberal.

redbtn This may be as a result of the increase in mass media in Britain and the exposure this provides to varieties of English such as American English and Australian English.

redbtn The past participle ‘gotten’ as in ‘he had gotten into his car’ is Standard American English — whereas it would be an aberration if used by a native British speaker.

redbtn The concept of a dialect used to be applied to a deviant form of the standard which had no written version. This is no longer the case. The written form of Standard English is now considered as a dialect. Thus we may write in a variety of dialects — one of which is the Standard English which most of us employ.

redbtn Dialect poetry has become popular recently, along with the shift in perception which political correctness has demanded.

redbtn Writers have for centuries attempted to represent dialect utterances in their work. Shakespeare often gave his yokels such items. Snout the tinker in A Midsummer Night’s Dream says “By’r lakin, a parlous fear.”

redbtn The novelist D.H.Lawrence represented the Nottinghamshire dialect in many of his novels by interspersing Standard English with utterances such as “Come into th’ut” spoken by Mellors in Lady Chatterley’s Lover.

redbtn Perhaps the most interesting factor here is that the writer needs to use the English alphabet in the attempt to write dialect terms. This is not always possible, and so one of the skills a dialect writer needs is the ability to select those words which lend themselves to representation by means of the orthodox alphabet.

redbtn Some contemporary regional dialect forms are ones which have remained as such after being eliminated from what is now Standard English. An example of this is the Scottish ‘kirtle’ which was replaced in Standard English during the Old English period by ‘skirt’.

redbtn Some of the terms used to command the sheep dogs in Cumbria and Northumbria are unrecognizable in any dialect. They have remained intact since Old English or Middle English times.

redbtn This is an interesting phenomenon and explicable when one considers that the utterance is necessarily one-way, with the dog as the listener! For this same reason, we can’t accurately define this set of commands as a contemporary dialect.

Self-assessment quiz follows >>>

© Roy Johnson 2003

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Figures of speech – understanding them

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Figures of speech – definition

figures of speech ‘Figures of speech’ is a term used to describe the devices employed to add colour, decoration, and imaginative expression to linguistic use.

redbtn They distinguish figurative or imaginative language from its use in a literal manner.

redbtn Common figures of speech include the following:

alliteration, assonance, cliché, metaphor, metonymy, onomatopoeia, oxymoron, paradox, simile, synecdoche

redbtn These are also known as ‘rhetorical devices’.

Examples

Literal – He ran quickly down the street.

Simile – He ran like a hare down the street.

Metaphor – He hared down the street.

Use

redbtn Many people use these devices quite unconsciously as part of everyday communication.

redbtn For instance, a statement such as ‘His plan was given the thumbs down’ uses a figurative term, not a description of people waggling their thumbs. [It dates back to a Roman emperor’s decision on a gladiator’s fate.]

redbtn If we say ‘I’ve told him a thousand times!’ this is not literally true. We are using a figure of speech [hyperbole, or exaggeration] to make a point.

redbtn NB! Don’t try too hard to use figures of speech. They’ll come naturally.

redbtn Figures of speech or rhetorical devices are present in all cultures. It seems that it is in the very nature of linguistic discourse for speakers to act creatively. Indeed, it is that creativity in language use which ultimately divides language use in humans and animals.

redbtn A child begins to be creative by using various figures of speech at the very beginning of the acquisition process. Words such as ‘bang’, ‘smack’, ‘moo’, and ‘baa’ are all onomatopoeic figures of speech common to a child’s early vocabulary.

redbtn It is useful to contemplate a continuum of which the two opposites are literal and non-literal in terms of linguistic expression. We could envisage a statement of fact towards one extreme and a metaphor towards the other.

redbtn The statement of fact might be This is a wooden door.

redbtn An example of a metaphor might be The sunshine of your smile.

redbtn These two utterances comprise five words each, yet the metaphor says much more than the factual statement. Not only does it say more but it speaks of vast and abstract elements such as love, the sun, gesture, happiness, human warmth, pleasure and possibly more.

redbtn Figures of speech are often used to express abstract emotional or philosophical concepts. The figure of speech attaches the abstract concept to a material object and thus is instrumental in creating powerful and dynamic communication.

redbtn Original figures of speech are valued in both speech and in writing. We respect the ability to generate these. Politicians for instance often use figures of speech, and are variously successful with this practice.

redbtn Churchill’s image of ‘the iron curtain’ has stayed with us for over fifty years, although the phenomenon it described no longer exists. ‘The cold war’ superseded it, during which it was the threat of someone ‘pressing the button’ which was on everyone’s mind.

redbtn The ‘rhetorical question’ is a figure of speech favoured by politician and lay person alike. It is a powerful device because, although it has the appearance of being a question, it often acts as a form of persuasion or criticism.

redbtn ‘Is our country in danger of becoming a hot-bed of sleaze?’ we might hear a politician ask. ‘Are we going to stand by and let these atrocities continue?’ Listening to our car radio we might mentally frame an answer to this kind of question – or at least we might be drawn into contemplating the issue.

redbtn At a more domestic level we might be asked ‘What time do you call this?’ or ‘How many times have I told you …?’ These are questions which actively discourage any answer. They are a form of rebuke which is an established ritual. As competent language users, we know them and participate in the ritual – by not answering, or responding to the ‘real’ (unstated) criticism.

redbtn Another figure of speech which spans the social spectrum is the cliché. These are often derided, and the word itself has become a pejorative term. However, the cliché is very much ‘alive and kicking’, especially in the context of football. ‘Over the moon’ about a result and ‘gutted’ to hear the news, are just two such figures of speech heard almost daily over the popular media.

redbtn The cliché proves its function by its prolific use. Perhaps it is its over-use, or its application in inappropriate contexts which may cause distaste.

redbtn Figures of speech are also known as images. This indicates their function well. The outcome of using them is that the listener or the reader receives a multi-dimensional communication. Lewis Carroll coined the term ‘portmanteau’ for words which are packed with layers of meaning. Although Carroll’s usage is slightly different from that of figures of speech, it does illustrate that we have a strong drive as language users to convey meaning colourfully and economically.

Self-assessment quiz follows >>>

© Roy Johnson 2003

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Function – how to understand it

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Function – definition

function Function is the term used to express the purpose of a text or of a speech act.

redbtn This function can be determined by the writer or by the reader.

Examples

redbtn Texts or spoken pieces might fall into one of the following broad categories:

WRITING
persuasion an advertisement
information a train timetable
entertainment a short story
instruction how to build a wardrobe
SPEECH
persuasion a sermon
information a radio weather forcast
entertainment a joke
instruction how to get from A to B
Use

redbtn The term ‘function’ is used as a technical term in linguistics and in literary criticism.

redbtn An awareness of function helps to produce efficient writing and speaking.

redbtn An awareness of function also results in efficient reading and listening.

redbtn NB! Function is one of the three important features of communication. The other two are audience and form.

redbtn The four general functions possess certain stylistic features or attributes:

Instruction the imperative mode and direct address
[Stir the mixture]
Persuasion emotive vocabulary
[beautiful, duty, militant, heart]
Information factual data
[time, locations, measurements]
Entertainment often breaks rules of grammar, spelling, pronunciation

redbtn Awareness of these in the production of speech or writing leads to effective communication and an appropriate style.

redbtn For instance, if we buy a product such as a chicken casserole from a supermarket we may be more interested in what’s in it than how to cook it. We may be interested in both these elements, but we certainly wouldn’t want them mixed together.

redbtn Food manufacturers for this reason present the list of ingredients [information] separately from how to prepare the dish [instructions]. This simple example shows the concept of function working efficiently.

redbtn If we receive a phone call from a close relative who comes to visit more often than we would like, we immediately try to ascertain the purpose [function] of the call. Is it –

  • an attempt to fix up the next visit? [persuade]
  • to tell us the possible dates? [inform]
  • to explain how their vegetables should be cooked? [instruct]
  • to tell us that the cat has learned to swim? [entertain]

redbtn In this example, the person who phones to arrange the visit may have every interest in obscuring the function of the call. As a recipient however, we are very interested in finding out what it is. Such is the crucial nature of function.

redbtn The National Curriculum for the teaching of English in Schools now states the importance of making children aware of the function of all the varied pieces they read and write.

redbtn Examining boards for A level English will only accept written work which has an authentic function. That is, it should be as close as possible to an example which could be used in real life.

Self-assessment quiz follows >>>

© Roy Johnson 2003

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Phonology – how to understand it

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Phonology – definition

phonology Phonology is the study of the sounds in any language.

redbtn The smallest unit of sound is known as a phoneme.

redbtn The phonemic alphabet is a complete set of symbols, each of which represents a single sound belonging to a specific language.

Examples

redbtn Here are some of the phonemic symbols representing sounds in English [received pronunciation]:

/ æ / = the ‘a’ in hat

/ k / = the ‘c’ in cap

Use

redbtn Phonology is a study of how sounds are organised in languages.

redbtn It is the province of linguists who study language varieties and who chart language change and development.

redbtn Phonemic symbols are used in all dictionaries to indicate the received pronunciation of each word.

redbtn Phonology is also used in therapeutic fields such as audiology and speech therapy.

redbtn NB! Phonetics [as distinct from phonology] is the study of how speech sounds are made, transmitted, and received.

redbtn The International Phonetic Alphabet [IPA] is a set of symbols which attempts to represent every unit of sound contained in every known language. [In this context the symbols are known as phonetic symbols.]

redbtn For instance, the words ‘butter’, ‘carriage’, and ‘chocolate’ (spoken in received pronunciation) would be represented as follows:

Butter = phonol-1
Carriage = phonol-2
Chocolate = phonol-3

redbtn The term phonemic symbol is used to refer to a set of sounds representing a specific language such as English, Turkish, Urdu, Icelandic, or any other.

redbtn It is as if there were a box containing all phonetic symbols for all languages, and when we select those which serve our own language we call that selection a set of phonemes.

redbtn A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound in any language.

redbtn It is represented in writing by placing a phonetic symbol between slanted lines. This indicates that it is part of a language.

redbtn For instance the simple word ‘pig’ would be represented by
/p/I/g/ because it is composed of three separate sounds.

redbtn Phonemes are the sounds of a language in received pronunciation. Regional varieties of that language may use sounds which differ from the RP version — and the symbols used to represent the dialect version are known as allophones.

redbtn An example of an allophone in English is seen in the vowel sound of words such as ‘bath’, ‘path’ and ‘castle’. The phoneme for the RP version of these sounds would be a: — representing the long open vowel b/a:/ð in ‘bath’.

redbtn The northern dialect version of the same sound in the context of those same words would be an allophone represented as b/æ/ð in ‘bath’.

redbtn Even though the symbol used is a phoneme representing RP, it becomes known as an allophone in the context of regional pronunciation.

redbtn It is important when attempting to grasp the concept of phonology and phonetics, to put to aside all notions of the orthodox spelling system.

redbtn An introduction to phonetics is useful to students of language in understanding the important distinction between speech and writing.

redbtn Phonetics also highlights the differences between spelling and pronunciation. When we learn to read [that is, to understand writing] we are learning a code. This is related to the spoken language in a crucially significant way, but in its nature and function it is distinct and discrete.

redbtn Phonology in context. The pronunciation system in English is extremely varied, and this variety springs from context.

redbtn The geographical context or the social context can be seen to determine the speech style of both individuals and of groups of speakers.

redbtn On a smaller scale, certain words themselves are context-specific in terms of pronunciation.

redbtn For example, ‘hand’ is pronounced roughly as it is spelt if it is spoken in isolation as a single word. However, in ‘handbag’ it is pronounced ‘ham’ or ‘han’.

redbtn The reason for this is ease of articulation. Clusters of consonants [three in succession in ‘handbag’] are difficult to pronounce.

redbtn If ‘hand’ is spoken after the adjective ‘left’ in ‘lefthand’, the initial aspirant [h] of ‘hand’ is to varying degrees eliminated to produce the sequence ‘left’and’.

redbtn Similarly, if the word ‘crisp’ is spoken in isolation, it is pronounced as written. If the plural ‘s’ is added however, the ‘p’ almost disappears to produce the sequence ‘criss’.

redbtn The definite article itself is subject to phonological variation which is determined by its context. That is, if it precedes a vowel sound as in ‘the other’ ‘the’ is pronounced ‘thee’. If it precedes a consonant, or is articulated in isolation, it is pronounced ‘the’, with the narrower vowel sound.

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© Roy Johnson 2003

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Received pronunciation – what it means

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Received pronunciation – definition

received pronunciation Received Pronunciation [or RP] refers to the accent used by such people as the Royal Family, BBC newsreaders, and members of the upper class.

redbtn It refers entirely to accent and not to content.

redbtn RP is a speech style which is based on social class and not on geographical region.

Examples

redbtn Some characteristic features of pronunciation in RP are as follows:

The long vowel in words such as ‘bath’, ‘path’, ‘ask’

Diphthongs in words such as ‘so’, ‘go’, ‘no’, ‘flow’

Use

redbtn Less than six per cent of the population of the UK speaks RP.

redbtn Although this speech style still carries notions of prestige, regional varieties of English are acquiring status equal to RP.

redbtn NB! Remember, RP is not the same thing as Standard English.

redbtn Received pronunciation (RP) is an accent of English which is based on social class rather than on region. Its origins are rooted in notions of prestige and status and impulses of exclusivity.

redbtn However, RP was itself once a regional variety of English. It originated in the East Midlands among the merchants who migrated towards London and the source of trade and wealth.

redbtn RP is therefore not the native London accent (as many people imagine). It is one which acquired strong connotations of prestige, because of its close connections with wealth and power.

redbtn The Cockney accent is the indigenous speech style of the London area. The two styles have existed alongside each other for hundreds of years.

redbtn Because many RP speakers happen to work in the capital city, the accent is falsely perceived as being regional and as belonging to London. On the contrary, RP speakers are scattered throughout the country and throughout the world. For instance, it is quite common for upper class people in Scotland to speak RP – without any trace of a Scottish accent.

redbtn The expansion of the mass broadcast media (radio and television) has meant that a huge variety of speech styles are heard by listeners and viewers every day. It seems as though this is gradually eroding the idea that RP is somehow superior to all other English accents.

redbtn RP is an approximate description of speech style, rather than being an exact specification. This applies to the classification of other accents too. Because speech varies subtly between individuals and between groups and areas, a broad description is all that can be achieved.

redbtn RP itself has changed slightly even over the past fifty years or so. This can be observed by watching films made during the nineteen-thirties and forties. The most obvious development has been the vowel sound in words such as ‘Harry’ which has become much more open. This feature is now used in parodies of that period.

redbtn Even the Queen, as head of state, speaks with a different accent than she had fifty years ago. In 1952 she would have been heard referring to thet men in the bleck het. Now it would be that man in the black hat. Similarly, she would have spoken of hame rather than home. In the 1950s she would have been lorst, but by the 1970s lost.

redbtn Many regional speakers feel embarrassed by their accents. It seems that much social pressure is felt generally because of the long-standing prestige given to RP. Certainly to linguists, RP is only one of many accents, although its special identity as a class accent is interesting.

redbtn Attitudes to RP. The new National Curriculum requires school students to be competent in using Standard English. Many teachers (and parents) wrongly take this to refer to accent. What it actually requires pupils to understand is the use of standard grammatical constructions, together with a comprehensive standard vocabulary.

redbtn There are a number of possible options available regarding one’s own attitude to speech-style:

  • be comfortable with a regional accent
  • be uncomfortable with a regional accent
  • change a regional accent in favour of RP
  • adapt speech-style to the social context

Self-assessment quiz follows >>>

© Roy Johnson 2003

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Speech – how it differs from writing

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Speech – definition

speech Speech is the universal means of oral communication.

redbtn It distinguishes humans from the rest of the animal kingdom.

redbtn Speech (not writing) is considered by linguists as the primary material for study.

Examples

redbtn German, Italian, French, Spanish, are all varieties of European languages.

redbtn Legal, religious, medical, and technical language are all varieties of spoken occupational jargon.

redbtn There are many varieties of spoken language, many of which are used even on an individual basis.

Use

redbtn Speech is innately acquired — unlike writing, which is a skill which has to be learned.

redbtn Speech is used constantly by everyone for a variety of functions, from the passing of information to the sharing of emotions.

redbtn There are no designated human speech organs, but respiratory and digestive organs are adapted to produce speech.

redbtn The pharynx is purely the sound box, shared by other animal species, primarily designed to produce mating, warning, and herding calls.

redbtn Speech and writing are two separate systems and an individual’s linguistic competence depends on the ability to make a clear distinction between the two.

redbtn NB! In linguistic study, speech is primary.

redbtn Speech normally contains hesitations, repetitions, and grammatical ‘errors’. It contains lots of ‘ums’ and ers’, and all sorts of sounds which have no connection with writing as a means of communication.

redbtn Speech is normally accompanied by many other non-verbal features which affect communication — such as intonation and stress, facial expressions, physical gestures, and even bodily posture.

redbtn In the study of language, speech is considered primary and as a system which is entirely separate from writing.

redbtn Children who are learning to write often confuse the two. They produce a written form of speech.

redbtn Maturity is demonstrated by the ability to use a literary style which is completely discrete and separate from speech.

redbtn Humans acquire speech due to their innate programming. Writing on the other hand is a skill which must be learnt in the same way as driving, sewing, or cooking.

redbtn There are still some societies in the world which have no written form of language, but which depend entirely on speech.

redbtn Sign language, among the profoundly hearing-impaired, is a system which can perform all that a spoken language can in terms of communication. In this case, the hands are adapted instead of respiratory and digestive organs in order to communicate.

redbtn As far as Linguistics is concerned, there is no such thing as a primitive language. All languages are equal in potential, to perform any communication task required by its users.

redbtn The organs used in speech are as follows:

lips teeth tongue palate glottis
uvula nose trachea lungs pharynx

redbtn All children develop their ability to use language at approximately the same rate, despite the variations in nationality or circumstances.

redbtn In the process of a child’s development, the acquisition of phonology, semantics and grammar progresses simultaneously.

redbtn This continues until linguistic maturity is reached around the age of seven. After this, an individual’s linguistic competence varies according to training, environment, and perceived necessity.

redbtn This development runs as follows:

Months Sounds
00—03 non-linguistic vocalisations
03—06 babbling
06—09 beginnings of recognisable speech sounds
09—12 one-word sentences such as ‘dada’

redbtn By the age of seven years all the phonological sounds of the language have been acquired.

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© Roy Johnson 2004

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Structure – how to understand it

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Structure in grammar – definition

structure in grammar The term ‘structure’ refers to the basic construction or the arrangement of parts in a communication — spoken or written.

structure in grammar In the study of language, the term is being used metaphoricaly.

Examples

redbtn The events of a novel or a play may be arranged in a linear, chronological order to reflect the passing of time. They might on the other hand be arranged so that the end reflects the beginning, presenting a cyclic structure.

redbtn The structure of the English language is its grammar system with discernable patterns such as that of word-order and rules for forming tenses.

redbtn The structure of a conversation might be fairly random or planned, depending on the level of formality and the purpose of the discourse.

redbtn An interview might follow the chronology of a candidate’s curriculum vitae, or it might be structured by a series of questions.

redbtn The structure of a business document might be determined by the route taken by information as it passes through an organisation. On the other hand, it might reflect the stages of a manufacturing process.

redbtn The structure of a poem can often be seen in its rhyme scheme and the arrangement of its verses.

Use

redbtn People structure the content of their speech spontaneously, without any need for deliberate planning.

redbtn The same is not true for writing, where conscious effort is required.

redbtn An awareness of the concept of structure in language use is essential to the speaker or the writer, the listener or the reader.

redbtn Structure can be based on such elements as chronology, alphabetical order, recurring themes, logical sequence of content, and visual layout.

redbtn NB! Readers and speakers are affected by structure, even though they may not be conscious of it.

redbtn The structure of a text or of a spoken item is its foundation. Structure when applied to the English language as a system is its grammar.

redbtn It might be useful to distinguish structure from form in terms of linguistic analysis. The term ‘form’ refers to the finished article as a recognisable artifact such as a novel, report, letter, recipe, sermon, statement, or greeting.

redbtn A letter, for example, has a structure based on the patterning of both its content and its layout. The content is structured according to the convention of giving information in the following order:

  • sender’s address
  • date of writing
  • vocative opening (‘Dear Sir’)
  • content in order of importance
  • conventional salutation (‘Best wishes’)
  • signature of writer

redbtn The structure of the content is complemented by the layout in a conventional letter. The content is organised on the page in a well known pattern.

redbtn Even if a person were twelve feet away from the text it would be recognisable as a letter form — because of the structure of the layout.

redbtn In any text, the content must be organised according to some logical premise. Information which is not consciously structured is disjointed, haphazard, and therefore usually incomprehensible. Efficient communication in speech and writing depends to a great extent on the existence of structure.

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© Roy Johnson 2004

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Tone – how to understand it

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Tone – definition

tone To the linguist [or speech therapist] ‘tone’ means the quality of sound produced by the voice in uttering words.

redbtn In a general sense, ‘tone’ is the attitude of the speaker or writer as revealed in the choice of vocabulary or the
intonation of speech.

redbtn This attitude might be immediately apparent — in tone of voice, for instance.

redbtn It might on the other hand be a complex and subtle manner which takes time to establish — in an extended piece of writing, for instance.

Examples

redbtn Written or spoken communication might be described as having a tone which is, for instance:

ironic serious flippant
threatening light-hearted pessimistic
Use

redbtn Tone is used to convey an attitude. This may be done consciously or unconsciously.

redbtn It could be said that there is no such thing as a text or verbal utterance without a tone.

redbtn In most cases, tone is either taken for granted, or perceived unconsciously.

redbtn NB! Tone is sometimes difficult to describe and analyse. It’s a subtle and complex matter.

redbtn Tone, taken at its most literal, is a feature of non-verbal communication. It is the physical level at which the sound of the human voice is transmitted.

redbtn Linguists and speech therapists chart intonation patterns by a system of marks on the page to suggest the rising and falling of the voice tone.

redbtn Intonation is the term by which we refer to the patterns of sound which are evident in every utterance. We sometimes use the term ‘monotone’ to imply an absence of intonation. This usually suggests some negative state of mind on the part of the speaker.

redbtn Every language has its standard set of intonation patterns. These have to be learnt by the non-native speaker as an essential constituent of the transmission of meaning.

redbtn The intonation patterns of a language are the first things a child learns in its progress as a speaker. They are the first elements a child selects from the body of ‘comprehensible imput’ which is necessary to trigger the acquisition process.

redbtn Interestingly, intonation is a difficult hurdle for the second-language learner. It seems that the intonation of one’s own native language becomes deeply internalised, and the ability to hear the intonation of a second language is not as sharp as it is in a young child.

redbtn We can, perhaps, appreciate these difficulties if we take the single word ‘hello’ and consider the variations possible in expressing it to imply an attitude. [This isn’t easy to reproduce on screen, but bear with us.]

‘Hello, hello, hello.’ stereotype policeman
‘Hello?’ ‘Is anyone there?’
‘Hello!’ ‘At last I’ve found it!’
‘Hello!’ ‘Here we go again!’
‘Hello!’ ‘Fancy meeting you.’
and of course…
‘Hello!’ Greeting a friend

redbtn Even a non-verbal utterance such as a cough or a clearing of the throat can be eloquent by means of its tone. An example of this is the cough which says ‘Be careful! People are listening in to what you’re saying’. A slightly different cough acts as a warning not to go any further with an action or an utterance.

redbtn Intonation as part of literary writing is conveyed often by narrative description as in:

‘Oh Jeremy!’ she exclaimed in a shocked tone.

‘Jeremy!’ she screamed, as she saw him leap from the parapet.

redbtn As practised readers, we infer the tone of literary dialogue without the explicit narrative description used in the first example given above. We hear the delivery in our mind’s ‘ear’ as clearly as we hear it in reality when taking part in a dialogue ourselves.

redbtn Tone is perhaps applied more widely in an almost metaphoric sense to convey a whole attitude. For instance we might receive a letter from someone expressing the sentiment that they had trusted us, but felt let down by something we had done. The letter might have an ironic tone, or an angry tone, or an indignant tone.

redbtn Tone in this sense is conveyed by an amalgam of choice of vocabulary and syntax on the part of the writer. For the reader, this selection creates an imaginary audible impression, as the tone is heard in the mind’s ear.

Self-assessment quiz follows >>>

© Roy Johnson 2004

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