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A good essay

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What makes a good essay?

1. Answers the question
No matter how interesting or well-written an essay, you will not be given any credit for your efforts unless it answers the question that was set. Your argument and evidence must be relevant to the question. This is the most important feature of what makes a good essay. It must deal with the subject or the topic(s) posed in the question rubric. Your answer should demonstrate that you have understood what the question is asking for, that you have grasped its key terms, and that you have followed all its instructions.

2. Clear structure
An essay should be like a good piece of architecture – built on firm foundations to carefully made plans. The points of your argument should be arranged in some structure which is logical and persuasive. If you are dealing with a number of issues, the relation between them should be clearly explained. The connections between each stage of your argument and the original question should be evident throughout the essay.

3. Appropriate style
For an academic essay the third person (‘he’, ‘she’, or ‘it’) rather than the first person (‘I’) is a more preferable style. Occasional use of ‘I’ may be acceptable if a personal opinion has been specifically requested. You should keep your audience in mind. Try to imagine that you are addressing someone who is intelligent and reasonably, but not necessarily well-informed in the subject. Remember that your writing should be grammatically accurate. Poor punctuation and weak sentence construction will create a bad impression. Mixed tenses and metaphors should be avoided. Spelling mistakes should be corrected.

4. Arguments supported by evidence
Essays should not be just a series of unsupported assertions. You need to provide some evidence to support them – either in the form of factual details, your own reasoning, or the arguments of others. In this latter case, you should always reveal the fact that you are using someone else’s ideas. Provide attribution by using a system of footnotes or endnotes and accurate referencing. Never try to pass off other people’s written words as your own. This is called plagiarism – a form of intellectual dishonesty which is severely frowned upon in academic circles.

5. Clarity of thought
One of the hallmarks of a good essay is that it demonstrates clarity of thought. This may be your ability to identify different issues and discuss them in a logical manner. It may mean organising materials into a coherent structure for the essay. It could be showing that you are able to make important distinctions and insights. This may not come easily at first, but with practice it should be possible to gain greater clarity through discipline, selection, and planning.

6. Evidence of wide reading and understanding
Essays are often set to encourage and direct your reading in a subject. If you show that you have read widely and thoroughly understood the subject you are discussing, you will be demonstrating your competence. The best essays are often produced by people who have taken the trouble to acquaint themselves both with the principal ‘set books’ and with secondary works of commentary and criticism as well. They will often show evidence of intellectual curiosity which has taken them beyond the bounds of what has been prescribed as a minimum.

7. Originality
An essay will be rewarded with a good mark if it competently reviews all the well-known arguments in a subject and reaches a balanced conclusion. The highest grades however are often given – deservedly – to essays which display something extra. This may be a demonstration of original ideas or an unusual, imaginative approach. Such essays usually stand out because of their freshness and the sense of intellectual excitement they convey. But remember that you are not usually required to be original. Your tutor(s) will be perfectly satisfied if you simply answer their essay questions in a sensible and competent manner.

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© Roy Johnson 2003

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A plan for writing essays

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1. Approach
Essays can be composed using a number of different writing strategies. Some people write directly from rough notes, whilst others prefer a ‘discovery’ method. If you are in any doubt at all, you should plan your work. The task of writing is usually much easier if you create an outline structure for your arguments, with brief details of the topics to be covered. The stages of this process are as follows.

2. Analyse the question
Make sure that you understand what an essay question is asking for. What is it giving you the chance to write about? What is its central issue? Note carefully any of its key terms and any instructions. Think about the question, turning it over in your mind. Discuss it if possible with your fellow students. If you are in any doubt, ask your tutor to explain what is required.

3. Generate ideas
Take a sheet of paper and make a brief note of any topics that might be used for an answer. These can be ideas, observations, or information from your study materials. These topics will be used to make a plan. Don’t copy out chunks of texts. Use brief notes or even single word triggers. Write down anything you think of at this stage. Your objective is to generate ideas, to assemble a stock of potential material from which you will pick out the most appropriate items.

4. Choose topics
Take another sheet of paper. Extract from your list all those topics and points of argument which are of greatest relevance to the question and its central issue. You are simply picking out the best material. If it is possible, put your ideas in any logical groups or categories. If anything strikes you as irrelevant to the subject in question, throw it out.

5. Reading and research
Whilst writing essays, you will probably be engaged in reading or research in the subject. This will help you to provide information for an answer. Your reading will be more carefully directed if you have narrowed down the topics you need to cover in your response to a question. This is why it is important to think about the issues involved as a form of preliminary work on the question.

6. Selection
Select items on the strength of their relevance to the question. This may not be an easy judgement to make. Keep asking yourself – “Is this directly related to the subject? Will it answer the question?” You might have three categories of selection. One is a definite “Yes – this relevant”. The second could be like a ‘Pending’ tray containing items which might be used later. The third is a dustbin into which the completely unrelated material is thrown for good.

7. Create order
Take yet another sheet of paper. Try to arrange your chosen topics and material in some sort of order. At this stage you should be starting to formulate your basic response to the question. Organise the points so that they form a persuasive and coherent pattern or argument. Some subjects will lend themselves more easily to the creation of this order than others. In some, such as appreciation of the arts, there may be no set pattern and one must be created. In some of the sciences, there may be a standard form of report which must be followed. This is probably the hardest part of essay planning at a conceptual level.

8. Arrange evidence
Most of the major points in your argument will need to be supported by evidence. One purpose of the essay task is to show that you have read widely in your subject and considered the opinions of others. In some subjects you may actually need proof to support your arguments. During the process of study you have probably been assembling notes and references for just such a purpose. If not, this is the time to do so. On another sheet of paper you might compile a list of brief quotations from other sources (don’t forget the page references) which will be offered as your evidence.

9. Material
Don’t worry too much if you have surplus evidence after completing this stage. This is perfectly normal. You can pick out the best from what is available. If on the other hand you don’t have enough, you should do more background reading or engage with the subject once again. Take some more notes or generate new ideas as material to work on.

10. Make changes
Whilst you have been engaged in the first stages of planning, new ideas may have come to mind. Alternate sources of evidence may have occurred to you, or the line of your argument may have shifted somewhat. Be prepared at this stage to rearrange your plan so that it incorporates any new materials. Try out different arrangements of your topics until they form the most convincing and logical sequence.

11. Make plan
Most essay plans can be summarised in this form:

  • Introduction
  • Arguments
  • Conclusion

State your case as briefly and as directly as possible. Next, present your arguments and your evidence in the body of the essay, explaining their relevance to the original question. Finally, draw together the points of your arguments and try to lift them to a higher level in your conclusion. Your final plan may be something like a list of half a dozen to ten major points of argument. Each of these, together with their supporting evidence, will be expanded to a paragraph of something around 100-200 words. This is the heart of essay planning.

12. First draft
You are now ready to produce the first draft of the essay. Don’t imagine that you are supposed to produce an accomplished piece of writing at one sitting. These will be your first thoughts and your initial attempts at answering the question. Later drafts can be improved by re-writing. You will be matching your evidence to what is required. You do not necessarily need to start at the introduction and work systematically towards your conclusion: it may be better to start working where you feel most comfortable.

13. Relevance
At all stages of essay writing, you should keep the question in mind. Keep asking yourself “Is this evidence directly relevant to the topic I have been asked to discuss?” If necessary, be prepared to scrap your first attempts and formulate new arguments. This may seem painful, but it will be much easier than scrapping finished essays.

14. Paragraphs
A good tip on relevance is to check that the opening statement of each major paragraph is directly related to the question. The first sentence (which is sometimes called the topic sentence’) should be a direct response to what you have been asked. It might be an example to illustrate your answer, or a major point of your argument on the subject in question. If it is not, something may be wrong.

15. Revising the draft
Your first draft is the basic material from which you will be building the finished product. Be prepared to re-write it in whatever way is necessary. If it is too short, generate more arguments. If it is too long, cut out the less relevant parts. If it doesn’t seem convincing, consider putting its arguments in a different order. You might begin to tidy up the grammar and style at this stage.

16. Multiple drafts
The number of drafts you make will depend upon the time you have available (and possibly the importance of the piece of work). It is very useful to take your work through a number of drafts, re-writing where necessary. In the majority of cases, this will improve the quality of what you produce.

17. Editing
Before actually submitting the piece of work, you should take it through at least one stage of rigorous presentation of your work will enhance its effectiveness. Create a neat, legible text; double-space your paragraphs and leave wide margins to ‘frame’ what you have written. Take pride in the work you produce. Keep essays in a loose-leaf folder or a document wallet. Alternatively, use one of the plastic envelopes which are now increasingly popular. Remember that your essays will be of critical importance during the period of revising for examinations.

© Roy Johnson 2003

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Abbreviations in essays

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1. The following is a list of abbreviations in essays you will often come across – mainly in the text, the index, or the bibliography of books designed for serious readers.

2. They are nearly all brief or abbreviated forms of expressions in Latin.

3. Many people also make use of them when taking notes, and they are also used in the footnotes and endnotes of academic writing. Examples below.

4. Don’t use abbreviations in the main text of any formal writing. If you wish to use these terms, they should be written out in full.

5. That is, don’t put e.g., but write out for example.

6. Notice that a full stop is placed after an abbreviation, but not when the full word is used.

7. This is correct usage, but sometimes the full stop may be omitted in order to avoid double punctuation.

8. Note that these terms are often shown in italics.

9. You should never begin a sentence with an abbreviation.

Abbrev. Full term
app. appendix
b. born. For example, b.1939
c. (circa) about: usually with a date.
For example: c.1830.
cf. (confer) compare.
ch. chapter (plural chaps.)
col. column (plural cols.)
d. died. For example, d.1956
do. (ditto) the same.
e.g. (exempli gratia) for example.
ed. edition; edited by; editor (plural eds.)
esp. especially.
et al. (et alii, aliae, or alia) and others.
For example, Harkinson et. al.
et seq. (et sequens) and the following.
For example, p.36 et seq.
etc. (et cetera) and so forth. [An over-used term. Worth avoiding.]
fig. figure (plural figs.)
f./ff. following.
For example, 8ff. = page 8 and the following pages.
ibid. (ibidem) in the same place: from the source previously mentioned.
i.e. (id est) that is.
inf. (infra) below: refers to a section still to come.
l. line (plural ll.) [NB! easily mistaken for numbers ‘One’ and ‘Eleven’.]
loc. cit. (loco citato) at the place quoted: from the same place.
n. note, footnote (plural nn.)
n.d. no date given
op. cit. (opere citato) from the work already quoted.
p. page (plural pp.) For example, p.15 [Always precedes the number.]
para. paragraph (plural paras.)
passim in many places: too many references to list.
q.v. (quod vide) look up this point elsewhere.
For example, q.v. p.32.
sic thus. As printed or written in the original. usually in square brackets [sic].
supra above: in that part already dealt with.
trans. translator, translated by.
viz. (videlicet) namely, that is to say.
For example: Under certain conditions, viz…
vol. volume (plural, vols.)

Here’s the use of abbreviation in an academic footnote. The first reference used edn for edition and p for page. The second reference uses ibid for ‘in the same place’.

2. Judith Butcher, Copy Editing: the Cambridge Handbook for Editors, Authors, and Publishers, 3rd edn., Cambridge University Press, 1992, p.234.

3. Butcher, ibid., p.256

Here’s an example which uses the abbreviated names of two well-known organisations:

The BBC reported yesterday that the leaders of NATO had agreed to discuss the crisis as a matter of urgency.

Abbreviations are commonly used in displaying web site addresses:

http://www.bath.ac.uk/BUBL/home.html

Every term in this address, apart from the names ‘Bath’ and ‘home’, are abbreviations

http = hypertext transfer protocol

www = world wide web

ac = academic

uk = United Kingdom

html = hypertext markup language

© Roy Johnson 2003

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Analysing essay questions

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1. Analysing essay questions is the first thing you should do before you start answering them. You should read the question very carefully. Study it closely, and try to analyse its full meaning. Make an effort to understand the problem it is posing, the principal issue or concept behind it, or the topic it is asking you to explore.

2. One way you can help yourself in this is to write out the question fully and accurately on the papers you will be using for your essay plan.

3. Most questions contain within them (even if by implication both key terms and instruction terms. Let’s look at a couple of examples.

4. “Examine the significance of Iago’s role in Othello”

Examine here is an instruction term because it tells you to discuss the topic in a general manner.

Iago’s role is a key term because it sets
the limit of the question and is asking you to focus attention on this particular aspect of the play.

5. “Compare and contrast liberal-democracy and state-socialism as forms of government”

Compare and contrast are instruction terms because they indicate that you should be looking for any similarities and emphasising differences in the two systems of government.

The words liberal-democracy and state-socialism are key terms because they specify the two forms of government that should be examined.

6. Other typical instruction terms are – Discuss, Evaluate, Illustrate, Outline, Review, Trace, Explain – because they tell you what to do with the topic and which approach your answe to the question should take.

7. Most common problems in understanding questions usually arise from a failure to pay close enough attention to what they actually say. This often results in –

  • Answering the wrong question
  • Misunderstanding the question topic
  • Failing to see the emphasis of the question
  • Not following the instructions

8. Contrary to what many people think, questions are not set to catch you out, to surprise you with something new, or to be especially difficult and cause intellectual pain. In almost all cases they are set to give you the opportunity to show what you have learned in a course of study.

© Roy Johnson 2003

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Apostrophes in essays

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1. Apostrophes in essays (‘) have two functions. They indicate both the possessive case and contractions. This might seem simple, but apostrophes cause a lot of problems.

The Possessive Case

2. We can say either ‘the whiskers of the cat’, or ‘the cat’s whiskers’. This is the possessive case, when something belongs to somebody or something else.

3. When the possessor is single we indicate possession by using an apostrophe followed by the letter ‘s’:

The man’s coat      my sister’s hat.

4. When the possessors are plural, the apostrophe is placed after the final ‘s’:

The girls’ bicycles      my cousins’ parents.

5. When names end with the letter ‘s’, either use is acceptable:

James’ wife    or    James’s wife.

(It is often said that the choice between the two should be made on how the word is pronounced.)

6. The apostrophe is never used with possessive pronouns:

his, hers, its ours, yours, theirs

But it is used with ‘one’: One must do one’s best.

7. Many shops and business concerns these days omit the apostrophe from their titles:

Barclays Bank      Coopers Wines

8. Note that the apostrophe is not required where a word has been formed by omitting its first part:

bus – NOT – ‘bus

phone – NOT – ‘phone

9. No apostrophe is required in the plural form of numbers and dates:

in the 1920s      the roaring twenties

10. The possessive of classical names ending in es is often formed by the apostrophe alone:

Demosthenes’ speeches
Sophocles’ plays
Xerxes’ campaigns

11. French names ending in an unpronounced s or x follow the normal rule, taking an apostrophe and an s:

Rabelais’s comedy      Malraux’s novels

Contractions

12. In formal prose we would write ‘She has told him’, but when speaking we would say ‘She’s told him’. The apostrophe is used to indicate the missing letters.

I am (I’m)      He is (he’s)      You are (You’re)

13. Note the difference between it’s (it is) and its (belonging to it).

14. There is no such thing as its’.

15. It’s may also be a contraction of it has

“It’s been a pleasure meeting you”

16. You should avoid the use of contractions in essays and formal writing.

© Roy Johnson 2003

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Arguments in essays

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1. The term ‘arguments’ is used to describe your response to an essay question. Your arguments might sometimes be no more than an explaining or evaluating a subject, interpreting a text, solving a problem, or reporting on a project.

2. In its more particular sense, an argument can be a proposition which is put forward and then illustrated, discussed, and defended. It might be the assertion and defence of a particular moral belief (“Killing people is always wrong”) the judgement of a work of art (“Bleak House is Dickens’s greatest novel”) or the inspection of someone else’s belief (“How valid is Chomsky’s notion of a Universal Grammar?”).

3. An academic argument should not be confused with the sort of personal dispute we might have with a family member (“You ate the last piece of cake! No I didn’t!”) – though it is true that both are forms of persuasion. Academic essays should not include literary abuse or personal criticism.

4. The difference between these two notions is that an academic argument should be put forward in an objective and relatively neutral manner. It must also be accompanied by illustrative examples, evidence to support your propositions, and logically persuasive discussion.

5. The argument might be a single claim or a theory for which ‘proof’ is offered. Alternatively, it might be an idea or a notion which is explored in a discursive manner. In this case, the order of the topics being examined forms the structure of the ‘argument’.

© Roy Johnson 2003

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Assessment criteria for essays

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1. What follow are the assessment criteria used by a humanities department in a typical UK university.

2. Most institutions use similar criteria, but not all of them take the trouble to make them explicit to students. [However, this is beginning to change because of political pressure.]

First Class (70+%)

A first class answer has a thoughtful structure, a clear message displaying personal reflection informed by direct use of primary source material and/or wide reading of scholarly literature, and a good grasp of detail (as evidenced by the choice of relevant examples which are well integrated into the answer’s structure). Complete with no errors or omissions. Professionally presented including scholarly apparatus.

First class answers are ones that are exceptionally good for an undergraduate and which excel in at least one and probably several of the following criteria:

  • comprehensiveness and accuracy
  • clarity of argument or expression
  • integration of a range of materials
  • close analysis of texts
  • insight into theoretical issues
  • relates topic to wider field of knowledge

Excellence in one or more of these areas should be in addition to the qualities expected of an upper second class answer. Although there is no expectation of originality of exposition or treatment, a first class answer is generally expected to spot points rarely seen. A high first (75+%) is expected to display originality and excel in most if not all the aforementioned criteria.

Upper Second Class (60-69%)

An upper second class answer generally shows a sound understanding of both the basic principles and relevant details of the topic supported by examples which are demonstrably well understood and which are presented in a coherent and logical fashion. The answer should be well presented, display some analytical ability and contain no major error or serious omissions. Not necessarily excellent in any area. Professionally presented including scholarly apparatus.

Upper second class answers cover a wider band of students. Such answers are clearly highly competent and typically possess the following qualities:

  • generally accurate and well-informed
  • reasonably comprehensive
  • well organised and structured
  • provides evidence of general reading
  • shows a sound grasp of basic principles
  • shows understanding of relevant details
  • succinctly and cogently presented
  • displays some evidence of insight

One essential aspect of an upper second class answer is that it must have competently dealt with the question set. It should also demonstrate an ability to evaluate the secondary sources used in writing the essay and should, where appropriate, offer evidence of an ability to observe closely and evaluate material evidence.

Lower Second Class (50-59%)

A substantially correct answer which shows an understanding of the basic principles. Lower second class answers display an acceptable level of competence, as indicated by the following qualities:

  • generally accurate
  • adequate answer to the question
  • work based on secondary sources and class notes
  • clearly presented
  • no real development of arguments
  • may contain errors or omissions

A lower second class answer may also be a good answer (that is, an upper second class answer) to a related question, but not the one set by the examiner.

Third Class (40-49%)

A basic understanding of the main issues, but not coherently or correctly presented. Third class answers demonstrate some knowledge or understanding of the general issue, but a third class answer tends to be weak in the following ways:

  • descriptive only
  • does not directly answer the question
  • misses key points
  • contains important inaccuracies
  • covers material sparsely
  • assertions not supported by evidence
  • poorly presented

Below Third Class

A pass presents the minimum acceptable standard at the bottom of the third class category. There is just sufficient information to indicate that the student has a general familiarity with the subject. Such answers typically:

  • contain little material
  • lack accuracy or depth of argument
  • adopt a cursory approach
  • are poorly written and presented

© Roy Johnson 2003

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Bibliographies in essays

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1. Bibliographies are lists of books placed at the end of essays. They are a compilation of any works you have consulted or from which you have quoted. The list is called a bibliography.

2. The traditional manner of recording this information is to use the following sequence:

AUTHOR – TITLE – PUBLISHER – DATE

Terry Eagleton, Literary Theory, Oxford: Blackwell, 1983.

3. In more scholarly works, such as dissertations and theses, this information may be given with the author’s surname listed first – as follows:

Eagleton, Terry. Literary Theory, Oxford: Blackwell, 1983.

4. If you are using the Harvard system of notation, the date follows the author’s name – thus:

Eagleton, T. (1983), Literary Theory, Oxford: Blackwell

5. When using a word-processor, put the book title in italics. [They are in bold here because italics don’t show up very well on screen.]

6. If you are using a ‘standard’ text, give the editor’s name first, as in the following examples:

Mark Amory (ed), The Letters of Evelyn Waugh, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1980.

Frank Kermode (ed), The Tempest, Methuen, 1954.

7. List the items of a bibliography in alphabetical order according to author’s or the editor’s surname.

8. Do not list works you have not consulted or from which you have not quoted. To do this creates the impression that you are trying to claim credit for work you have not actually done.

9. You might find that your bibliography repeats much of the information given in your endnotes. Don’t worry about this: these two separate lists have different functions. In addition, your bibliography may contain works from which you have not directly quoted.

10. See References for details of more complex bibliographic issues. Here is an extract from the bibliography of a second year undergraduate essay on the sociology of domestic labour:

Bibliography

Beeton, I., Beeton’s Book of Household Management, Chancellor Press, 1991.

Best, G., Mid-Victorian Britain 1851-75, Fontana, 1979.

Branca, P., Silent Sisterhood, Croom Helm, 1975.

Burman, S. (ed), Fit Work for Women, Croom Helm, 1979.

Burnett, J., Useful Toil, Allen Lane, 1974.

Darwin, E., ‘Domestic Service’, The Nineteenth Century,
Vol.28, August 1890.

Davidoff, L., The Best Circles, Croom Helm, 1973.

Davidoff, L., ‘Mastered for Life: Servant and Wife in Victorian and Edwardian England’, Journal of Economic and Social History, Vol.7, 1974.

© Roy Johnson 2003

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Brackets in essays

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1. The term brackets in essays is used to describe both square brackets [these] and round brackets (these) – whose technical name is ‘parentheses’.

2. The difference between the two is that a parenthesis represents an aside, an associated remark, or an additional piece of information which is closely related to the main subject of the sentence in which it is placed.

Goodwin argues that Thompson’s policies (of which he clearly disapproves) would only increase the national debt.

3. Square brackets on the other hand are used to indicate that something has been added to the original text for editorial purposes of clarification or comment.

The reporter added that this woman [Mrs Wood] had suffered severe injuries.

A mother wrote to the headmaster that her son was ‘fritened [sic] to go to school’

4. A common use for the parenthesis in academic writing is to indicate a bibliographic reference within the text of an essay – particularly when using the Harvard (or the short title) system of referencing.

Sartre’s account of ‘bad faith’ (Sartre 1938) differs slightly from that offered by Simone de Beauvoir (de Beauvoir 1949).

5. Notice that when a parenthesis occurs at the end of a sentence, the full stop falls outside the bracket (as this one does).

6. Any statement within brackets should be grammatically independent of the sentence in which it occurs. That is, the sentence should be gramatically complete, even if the contents of the brackets were to be removed.

The republican senator (who was visiting London for a minor operation) also attended the degree ceremony.

7. If a quotation contains a mistake in the original you might wish to indicate that the error is not your own. This too is indicated by the use of square brackets.

The senior government minister who was recently acquitted of kerb-crawling claimed that at long last his ‘trails [sic] and tribulations’ were at an end.

8. The expressions within brackets should be kept as brief as possible, so as not to interrupt the flow of the sentence in which they are placed.

9. The use of brackets should be kept to a minimum. If used too frequently, they create a choppy, unsettling effect.

© Roy Johnson 2003

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Capital letters in essays

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1. Capital letters in essays are always placed at the beginning of a sentence, and they are used for all proper nouns:

He slowly entered the room, accompanied by his friend James Bowman.

2. They are used when a particular thing is being named. For instance

days Wednesday, Friday
places East Anglia
rivers the river Mersey
buildings the Tate Gallery
institutions the Catholic Church
firms British Aerospace
organisations the National Trust
months April, September

3. However, when such terms are used as adjectives or in a general sense, no capital is required:

the King James Bible   BUT   a biblical reference

Manchester University   BUT   a university education

4. Capitals are used when describing intellectual movements or periods of history:

Freudian      Platonism      Cartesian

The Middle Ages      the Reformation

5. They are also used in the titles of books, plays, films, newspapers, magazines, songs, and works of art in general. The normal convention is to capitalise the first word and any nouns or important terms. Smaller words such as and, of, and the are left uncapitalised:

A View from the Bridge
The Mayor of Casterbridge
North by Northwest
The Marriage of Figaro

6. The convention for presenting titles in French is to capitalise only the first or the first main word of a title:

A la recherche du temps perdu
La Force des choses

7. However, there are many exceptions to this convention:

Le Rouge et le Noir
Entre la Vie et la Mort

8. In German, all nouns are given capitals:

Reallexikon zur deutschen Kunstgeschichte

9. Works written in English which have foreign titles are normally
capitalised according to the English convention:

Fors Clavigera       Religio Medici

10. Interesting exception! Capitals are not used for the seasons of the year:

autumn      winter      spring      summer

© Roy Johnson 2003

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