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How to write a business document

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effective business communication skills

What is a business document?

A business document can be any form of writing connected with commerce, administration, government, industry, or non-personal communication — any of the following:

Business document

These are normally documents printed onto paper, but modern business also includes documents in the form of email messages, web pages, Powerpoint presentations, and online instruction manuals.

You should follow the same principles for writing such documents, no matter in which form they will finally appear.

Five stages of planning

There are five basic stages in the process of writing a business document.

If you are conscious of each one as a separate activity, it will help to make the task of writing a business document easier.

  1. Visualise the document
  2. Determine the content
  3. Create a structure
  4. Write the first draft
  5. Make any revisions
Visualise the document

Visualise the finished document as a material object. We now know that visualisation is a great aid to achievement.

For this stage you need to know what the business document looks like. Make sure you have at least one good example of the following:

  • a letter
  • a report
  • a proposal
  • a memo
  • a bulletin

Keep these examples in a handy place in your office where you can refer to them at any time. It is a good idea to keep them in a binder, each in its own plastic wallet, so that you can browse and find them easily.

Set up some templates in your word-processor which correspond to the list of document types shown above. This way, you save yourself the repeated task of creating a new layout for every document.

Your templates should conform to the principles outlined in How to Write a Report as follows:

  • Modules — write text in bite-size chunks
  • Relevance — one topic only – exclude anything which doesn’t belong
  • Navigation — use headings and sub headings to guide your reader
  • Consistency — of vocabulary, expression, layout, visual features
  • Hierarchy — multi level text with correspondence between levels
Writing the content

Be sure you know exactly what it is you need to write. If you are not sure about your purpose, it makes the writing more difficult.

Here are some tips for making sure that you start out with a confident and accurate idea of what is required.

Write down the purpose(s) of your document and the response you require.

Put yourself in the place of the person receiving the letter. Answer the three crucial questions yourself before you start writing your document. There are three questions a reader asks about a document:

  1. What is this? — a letter, proposal, memo, report
  2. What’s it about? — new rules, I’m fired, I’m going on a trip
  3. What do I do? — reply, accept an invitation, disagree with the points, give my permission
Creating the structure

Create an overall structure using diagrams or titles in a hierarchy. This will give you confidence – because you can see the complete outline of your document before you fill in the detailed content.

Create a structure using a form you find useful:

  • Lists of topics — every important topic you wish to include
  • Diagrams — which works for you – spider, matrix, mind-map
  • Boxes — a page with several rows of blank boxes, each representing a level of your document

This writing strategy will also deter you from meandering from the topic, because you are writing your text according to the part titles you have created.

You may also wish to use the OUTLINER facility in your word-processor.

You can also create an overall structure using working titles in a hierarchy. Make up quick working titles for your modules chapters and sections.

Don’t agonise about them. You can always change them easily after you have written your draft document.

Here’s an example of an outline in titles

  • New services available
  • Advantage to customer
  • New pricing structure
  • Special discounts
  • Ordering details
  • Names, contacts, numbers

If the document contains a lot of material which needs to be organised in some way or other, use one of the common approaches to creating structure. The parts can be arranged in –

  • logical progression
  • increasing significance
  • equal significance
  • chronological order
  • narrative sequence
  • category groupings
Document titles

There are three kinds of title in business documents.

  1. function title
  2. topic title
  3. combination title

A function title — tells your reader what the section or module is doing. This kind of title is independent of the topic in the text. Here are some examples:

  • Introduction
  • Problems
  • Background
  • Criteria
  • Solution
  • Comment
  • Recommendation

A topic title — tells your reader what the section or module is about. Examples of topic titles:

  • Additional monthly benefits
  • Loan payment methods
  • Calculating overtime
  • Cash-flow difficulties
  • Recruitment methods

A combination title — is made up of two parts, which are topic and function. The combination title does most work in terms of communication. Examples of combination titles:

  • Problem of information overload
  • Solution to staffing problems
  • Way forward for programmers
  • Introduction to new parking rules
  • Action by team members
  • Decision on compliance issues
Titles in general

Be clear — Use titles that clearly describe the function or the content of the module.

Be brief — Make titles brief. Shorter titles are better than longer ones, provided they don’t create any ambiguity. Use no more than three to five words.

Be consistent — Use the same vocabulary in the title as you use in the text module.

Be familiar — Use terms which are generally familiar to any reader. Avoid technical jargon except when you write as one specialist to another.

Be independent — Make each title stand alone and act as an advance organiser for a document, section, chapter, module.

Write the first draft

Write your initial draft in separate sections, parts, or modules. This is a very efficient way of writing your first draft.

You already have your data and the structure of your argument worked out. Now you write the separate sections for each title you have created.

This is much less stressful than trying to write the whole document at once. If you find one section getting out of hand, then break it down into two or three smaller parts.

You can also re-write any individual part which is not successful.

Make revisions

Now is the time to take an overview of what you have done so far. First check the structure of your document and put the parts in order.

Put yourself into the shoes of your reader and ask yourself if the content is properly structured. If you are satisfied that you have created a clear and logical arrangement for the contents of your document, then you can complete the piece with confidence.

If you have followed the five stages, any alterations required at this stage will be minor ones and easily carried out. This process is very easy if you use the editing facilities of a word-processor.

You might also wish to save different versions of the document – in which case, make sure you label them clearly.

© Roy Johnson 2014

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How to write a report

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planning, structure, writing, and presentation skills

What is a report?

How to write a ReportA report is a detailed and well-organised document that defines and analyses a subject or a problem.

A report should always be accurate, concise, clearly written, and well structured.

A report might also record a sequence of events, evaluate a product or a process, discuss a series of proposals, or make a number of recommendations.

A report should include all the information necessary for the reader to understand the topic under discussion and make informed decisions about it.

The purpose of a report

Reports are used in education, business, finance, government, manufacturing, and scientific research.

In small and medium companies they usually communicate information from one company to another. In large companies they communicate information between personnel.

You might write a report when applying for a grant; to accompany a business proposal; or to describe a project which has been commissioned.

Reports might also be important to record the progress of a business – as in a company’s annual report.

Reports do not have to be long – or boring. They should be clear and easy to understand, especially if they are written for somebody else.

How to write a report

Writing a report is often a major undertaking for many people. The task can be made easier by breaking it down into a series of steps. The following are recommended as guidelines for writing reports.

Stage 1 – Choose the type of report

Stage 2 – Decide the purpose of report

Stage 3 – Choose report sub-headings

Stage 4 – Assess your data

Stage 5 – Draft the report

Stage 6 – Edit and proof read

If you need to produce a report whose type is not discussed here, follow the same principles. That is – first of all think carefully about the form or kind of document you are going to produce.

It will help you enormously if you get hold of an example of the type of report you need to produce. In particular, study its structure, and use that as a model for what you have to write.

You might need to adapt another type of report for your purposes. If you need to create your own type of report, follow the guidelines for creating good structure in documents.

Acquaint yourself with some examples of various report types. This will help you to decide which type of report you need.

Stage 1 — Types of report

1. A meeting report communicates the details of a meeting to people who did not attend. It may also go to people who did attend, as a summary of events for future reference.

The minutes of a meeting record the major points made by a group of two or more people who conduct a meeting.

2. A project report is a record kept by the project manager, and is presented to management or sponsors. It usually details chronologically the events, achievements and attainment of a project’s targets and objectives.

3. A feasibility report is similar to a problem-recommendation report but it describes one possible solution in detail and makes recommendations.

4. A sales report gives the details of a salesperson’s contact with a specific customer or company – indicating whether or not sales have been made.

5. A status report tells the management what has been happening on a project, and to what degree it is going according to plan.

6. A problem recommendation report outlines the writer’s investigation into a particular problem and recommends a course of action to solve the problem

7. A site-visit report summarises the conditions which obtain at a particular location in relation to a project – such as the construction of a building.

8. A company report is the record of a business and its recent history, made usually at the end of a financial year. It combines management strategies, sales results, and accounts.

Stage 2 — The purpose of your report

The purpose of a report will have an effect on both its content and the manner in which it is presented.

A good starting point is to write out the purpose of the report in a sentence or two. This ‘purpose statement’ will help you to focus on your primary needs. It will help you by giving the report both a starting point and a goal.

Typical examples of purpose are to inform, instruct, persuade, or to record.

A report may have more than one purpose – just as it might have more than one audience. For instance, a company’s annual report is a statement for the directors, the shareholders, and the public in general.

An academic report (say, in science or engineering) may have a double purpose. First the recording of an experiement or a field visit. Second, demonstrating that the author is familiar with the conventions of academic writing in that discipline.

A commercial sales report might be used by regional and national sales managers, a finance controller, and the chief executive officer (CEO).

These various parties will be interested in different aspects of the report. And since each reader has different interests in the report’s content, it is important to plan the report so that it includes the information each reader is looking for.

Stage 3 — Report headings and sub-headings

Choose the sub-headings for your report from the following list. Doing this at the planning stage will help you to write a clear report which is easy for your recipient to read.

Arrange the sub-headings in conjunction with your main headings at a later stage. The following list of headings which belong with report types is arranged in alphabetical order.

Action needed

Example
Please select an appropriate time and place to meet and inform the members of the team.

Assumption

Example
The project team will consist of one half-time systems analyst and two full-time, experienced programmers.

Attachment

Example
You will find the following attachments which establish the legal status of this policy.

Background

Example
I met the Chair of Needwell last Thursday and we agreed that I would send you information regarding the expansion plans.

Benefit

Example
The benefits of a fully implemented WebCT system are as follows:

  • better utilisation of resources
  • a balanced production load
  • decreased stock in inventory
  • decreased order expediting
  • reduced production costs

Caution

Example
Although there is a new policy for internal promotion, there are more people qualified for advancement than there are slots available.

Constraint

Example
The union contract permits only eight hours work per day before overtime must be paid.

Contact

Example
If you or anyone in your department wants to submit comments on our new word processing equipment, send them in writing to J.Bloggs Staff Depot

Deadline

Example
These changes apply to all applications we receive on or after 10 October 2015

Decision needed

Example
Please let me know when we can meet to design a new form for travel reimbursement.

Implication

Example
If the Company adopts the proposed retirement policy we can anticipate the following:

  • a large pool of experienced executive talent for our T Project
  • improved morale among all employees approaching retirement age
  • slightly higher costs of medical expenses and insurance

Importance

Example
If we do not have our new word-processing equipment running by 17 September 2010, we will not be able to support the production goals.

Introduction

Example
The Fine Food Marketing Company has recently entered the health food industry with a brand new type of food supplement called Gatewell.

Law

Example
The commissioner of environmental quality engineering or his designee may issue orders in the name of the department of environmental quality on being presented with proof of the violation of any statute, rule, regulation, or code which the department is authorized to enforce.

Objective

Example
We expect that the new system will be fully operational by May 2006

Options

Example
The company has two staffing options available for this project

  1. use entirely new employees
  2. use a mix of employees and contractors

Policy

Example
This company will employ individuals without regard to race, colour, gender, or national origin.

Problem

Example
Our work processing system does not have the capability to handle special graphic presentations. This causes a loss of business.

Purpose

Example
The purpose of the meeting is to make and document an action plan for opening the Greenleaf Site.

Rationale

Example
Our decision to avoid genetically modified elements in our wines is based on the lack of evidence currently available concerning the effects of GM elements.

Recommendation

Example
In conclusion, we strongly recommend that new measures be put in place for testing our boilers for corrosion.

Reference

Example
Please refer to the Critical Quarterly for reviews on the publications mentioned in the body of this report.

Schedule

Example
The schedule below gives details of the staffing responsibilities

  • Week 1 Payroll
  • Week 2 Personnel
  • Week 3 Support Team

Source

Example
I found the statistics for the Boston Flyer in The Engineering Journal published May 2000.

Speaker

Example
Tuesday’s speaker will be Sir Harold Busby, Chairman of Astrolux.

Summary

Example
This report has examined the feasibility of a merger between Minibok and Fair Trading. It has examined the financial and social implications.

Stage 4 — Assess the data

Before sitting down to write your report, make sure you have all the research data to hand. Mark out each part of the data, allocating it to one of your sub-headings.

If you have some data which doesn’t fit any of the sub-headings, think carefully about whether to create a heading which fits the data or whether to discard the data as irrelevant.

It is perfectly normal to gather data which is not needed in the final report. Do not feel obliged to include material just because it exists.

Stage 5 — Draft the report

Draft your report in short sections, under each one of your headings or sub-headings. This way, you will be able to rearrange the sequence, or delete some content.

Working in short sections makes writing an easier process. Use the following guidelines for drafting the sections.

Create readability by structure

Your reader will digest the document most efficiently if the text is broken down into bite-size sections. Large dense blocks of text are overfacing and difficult for the eye to deal with.

Your sections should comprise no more than ten lines. Here is an example of the bite-size section.

Increased sales

New customers
The sales team has broken all records this month.
The number of new customers has rocketed from last month’s total of 10,000 to 12,975.

Additional bonuses
In view of this we are giving all members of the sales team an additional bonus of 0.5 per cent.

Create readability by relevance

Each section should contain one idea. Nothing else should be added. Extra ideas, even if they are connected with the subject, should be given their own paragraph.

In the example given above, the topic of increased sales stands alone. The extra topic of bonuses is related, but comprises a separate paragraph.

Create readability by navigation

Each topic in your report should have a signpost or a sub-heading. This prepares your reader for what is to follow.

It also helps the reader in referring back efficiently to a specific point or topic. In the example given above, each topic is signposted to prepare the reader for what is coming.

The heading ‘Increased sales’ introduces the main topic, whilst ‘new customers’ and ‘additional bonuses’ announce the sub-topics.

Create readability by verbal consistency

Your reader will digest your report quickly and efficiently if you use layout, headings, font style, and vocabulary consistently.

Reports are entirely functional and therefore quick, efficient reading is your objective.

In the example given above, vocabulary is used consistently. The word ‘sales’ is used both in the main heading and in the body text The word ‘customer’ is used both in the sub-heading and in the body text

Create readability by visual consistency

Consistency helps readers to find their way in a document. At every level of the document you should use consistency in:

Visual presentation

  • Font type and size
  • Page layout
  • Main Headings
  • Sub-headings
  • Bulleted lists
  • Numbered lists
  • Page numbering
  • Justification (right, left, centre, full)

Consistent language

  • Vocabulary
  • Sentence size
  • Sentence construction
  • Style of expression


Follow the guidelines on How to present documents to give your report a professional appearance.

Stage 6 — Edit and proof read

Editing and proof reading a substantial report might be a lengthy and time-consuming process. But it will make the difference between an amateur and a professional piece of work.

Editing is the process of checking your work very carefully in order to –

  • remove any spelling mistakes
  • check your grammar
  • make your punctuation consistent
  • re-write any clumsy expressions

Proof reading is the very last stage of making any changes. At this point it is assumed that the content of the report has been checked for accuracy, grammar, and punctuation.

Proof reading looks at the presentation of the text in even greater detail – mainly for matters of bibliographic and typographic consistency.

  • Capitalization of headings
  • Font size and style
  • Spacing between paragraphs
  • Regularity of indentation
  • Consistent use of italics and bold

Follow the guidelines on Editing your writing to produce a document which is free from minor blemishes.

Sample report structure

Title page

[This should normally include the following as a basic minimum]

the title of the report

the name of the author

or

the name of the organisation

the date

Acknowledgements

[If necessary – in longer reports]

A list of people and organisations who have helped in the production of the report.

Contents page

[Always included in any reports of more than a few pages]

A clear list of all the sections and sub-sections in the report – with page numbers.

If applicable, there should be a separate list of tables, figures, illustrations and appendices after the main index.

The headings in this list should correspond exactly with those in the main body of the report. Generate the list of contents after completing the report.

Terms of reference

[Sometimes included]

A definition of the task or the brief you were given. This is statement of the specific objective and purpose behind writing the report.

Even if you don’t include this as a heading, it is a vital process to go through in your planning.

  • What exactly is your report going to be about?
  • Who exactly is responsible for what?
  • How long have you got? What is your task timescale?
  • Why are you writing the report?
  • Who are you writing the report for?
  • What does your reader want to see?

Procedure

[sometimes included]

How your research was carried out; how the information was gathered and treated.

This section might also be called ‘methodology’ in some reports.

Materials and methods

[included if appropriate]

Similar to methodology or procedure, but more appropriate to scientific or engineering report writing. The following advice comes from Robert Barrass’ book Scientists Must Write (Chapman & Hall, 1978, pp.135-136).

1. List the equipment used and draw anything that requires description (unless this is very simple).

2. State the conditions of the experiment and the procedure, with any precautions necessary to ensure accuracy and safety. However, when several experiments are reported, some details may fit better in the appropriate parts of the Results section.

3. Write the stages in any new procedure in the order of implementation, and describe in detail any new technique or modifications of an established technique.

4. If necessary, refer to preliminary experiments and to any consequent changes in technique. Describe your controls adequately.

5. Include information on the purity and structure of the materials used, and on the source of the material and the method of preparation.

Summary

[usually included in longer reports]

This is a short summary of the entire report, created for those people who may not have time to read the entire document.

This is often called the Executive Summary (in business reporting), Abstract (in a dissertation or thesis) or Synopsis (in a scholarly work).

It’s a very brief outline of the report to give the potential reader a general idea of what it’s about. A statement of:

  • overall aims and specific objectives
  • method or procedure used
  • key findings
  • main conclusions and recommendations

Introduction

This might be optional, but writing an introduction will help you to describe your overall purpose.

This should show that you have fully understood the brief and that you are going to cover everything required. Indicate the basic structure of the report.

Include just a little background or context and indicate the reasons for writing the report. You may include your terms of reference and procedure or research methods if not covered elsewhere.

Your introduction will often give an indication of the conclusion to the report.

Write this last of all so that you know what it is you’re introducing. You could have a working introduction that is edited when the body of the report is complete.

Main body of the report

This is the substance of your report. The structure will vary according to the nature of the material being presented, with headings and sub-headings used to clearly indicate the different sections.

Charts, diagrams, tables, and illustrations can be used to reinforce the points your are making.

Sometimes it may be better to include these as an Appendix, particularly if they are long or complicated.

Do not include opinions, conclusions or recommendations in this section.

Results

[included mainly in scientific or engineering reports]

This section records your observations and would normally include statistics, tables or graphs.

These are called ‘findings’ in a business context.

Conclusion

[always included]

Your conclusion should state the implications of your findings, with deductions based on the facts described in your main body. Don’t include any new material here.

Recommendations

[if required]

These should follow on logically from your conclusion and be specific, measurable and achievable. They should propose how the situation or problem could be improved by suggesting action to be taken. A ‘statement of costs’ might be included if you are recommending changes that have financial implications.

Recommendations can be numbered for the sake of clarity.

Appendices

(if required)

An appendix (plural=appendices) is detailed documentation of points you outline in your findings, for example, technical data, questionnaires, letters sent, tables, sketches, charts, leaflets.

It is supplementary information which you consider to be too long or complicated or not quite relevant enough to include in your main body, but which still should be of interest to your reader.

Each appendix should be referred to in your text. You should not include something as an appendix if it is not discussed in the main body.

References

[if required]

This is a list giving the full details of all the sources to which you have made reference in the body of your report.

Bibliography

[sometimes included]

This is a list of all the sources which you have used during your research – books, articles, and web sites. It should include those you have made reference to in your writing, as well as any other materials you may have consulted but not quoted.

Glossary

[occasionally included]

A glossary contains specialist terms with their contextual definitions. This is particularly useful when specialist terms have been used in the report.

Include a glossary of terms if the report includes a lot of specialised vocabulary, technical jargon, or acronyms which may not be familiar to the reader.

© Roy Johnson 2013

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How to write an executive summary

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tutorial, guidance notes, and examples

What is an executive summary?

Business reports often have an introductory section called an ‘executive summary’. This is a self-contained part of the total document – sometimes known as a ‘management summary’.

Executive SummaryIts purpose is to summarise the most important points expressed in the main document. It will usually contain brief statements regarding proposed actions, background information to the document, concise statistics or factual evidence, and principal conclusions.

The summary is usually placed at the beginning of the report or proposal. It might be printed as a separate document and circulated either along with or separately from the main report or proposal.

An executive summary is often written for an audience of senior managers, important decision-makers, potential customers, or committee members. In some cases it might also be circulated to members of the public – to demonstrate the effectiveness and proper conduct of the organisation.

It is a summary available for people who might not have time or may not need to read the entire report. But they might need to know its main points or recommendations, in order to participate in some decision-making process.

The audience for an executive summary might also include members of the public or employees of another organisation – for instance in cases where you might be applying for a grant or offering a product or service.

How is it different to an abstract?

An executive summary is different to the ‘abstract’ of a document – in that an abstract is normally a neutral précis of the whole document. The purpose of an abstract is to give readers an outline of the subject, so that they can decide whether to read the whole document or not.

An executive summary on the other hand normally contains concrete proposals for further action, and the evidence on which these decisions will be taken. It contains within it, even if by implication, calls to action.

It has its own separate heading, and is often constructed so that it can be detached from the main document if necessary.

The structure of an executive summary

The executive summary might even begin with its conclusions! This can act as a sort of a summary of the summary.

For example, in a feasibility report, the executive summary would contain a statement about the main findings of the report, and its recommendations. What follows might be the arguments or the evidence upon which these decision have been taken.

That level of detail is used by those who have a significant responsibility in the decision-making and the implementation of the project.

An executive summary should occupy only one or two pages of text maximum. If it goes on much longer than that, it ceases to be a summary and loses its purpose.

It might normally include an introductory statement, a summary of the findings, and a conclusion containing recommendations or action points. In some cases, its structure might usefully echo that of the main document. You should use clear sub-headings to make the structure clear.

Here is an example of an executive summary which is part of a feasibility report on ‘Setting Up a Company Website’.

Executive Summary

Findings so far

From the responses I have received so far, we already have the following information:

  • key benefits we would derive from a company Website
  • key issues to be addressed before developing the site

Decisions to be made

We need to be able to make the following decisions at the meeting arranged for Friday 2 June.

  • establish the benefits of a company Website
  • identify any key issues which must be addressed
  • identify any possible solutions to potential problems
  • estimate approximate costs for design and maintenance
  • agree on the next stage of the project

Key benefits

We have already established the following key benefits of introducing a company Website:

  • identify new products
  • establish new contacts
  • provide a 24 hour information service for Sales staff
  • provide an effective sales support system
  • widen the audience for our products
  • allow customers to sample our products
Writing the executive summary

If you have written the complete version of the report, your task is simply to make a digest of the full document. For this you will require good summarizing skills.

For a long report, you should make a summary of each section using just a few sentences – then if necessary, reduce these even further, or list them as short bullet points.

Readers can absorb complex data more easily if it is translated into diagrams or ‘information graphics’. Use tables, pie charts, and graphs in which trends and statistics can be seen clearly, without specialist knowledge.

The executive summary should contain less jargon than the full report. That’s because there might be non-specialists involved in the decision-making process. In some cases the executive summary might be something intended for a public audience – such as the summary of a charity’s annual report, demonstrating how it had spent last year’s money, and what its priorities are for the coming year.

The executive summary is written last – after the full formal report has been completed. Yet paradoxically, it comes first when the full contents are assembled for consideration – either as a PowerPoint presentation or in the form of a printed booklet.

The structure of an executive summary

The structure or the sequence headings in your executive summary can follow the same sequence as in the main document or report – with one exception. The conclusions of an executive summary come first, whereas in the main report they are likely to come at the end, followed only by appendices and bibliographies.

Sample summary structure

This is an example of an executive summary in abbreviated form, so as to reveal more effectively its structure. It comes from an imaginary report into a proposal to build a new vehicle access road into an airport.

Conclusions

Manchester Airport Authority (MAA) recommends that its proposal for the new vehicle access road be accepted in the recently modified format dated 12 June 2012.

Consultation with the government’s transport select committee over shared funding of this project will continue, but should not be allowed to delay the commencement of building in March 2014.

Responsibility for the management of the project will rest with RoadBuild Projects Ltd, answerable to the Department of Transport and Greater Manchester Transport Executive

Evidence from Transport Select Committee

This is summarised in Appendix A of the full report.

Evidence from public enquiry

This is summarised in Appendix B of the full report.

Environmental factors

The two principal environmental concerns raised during the consultation period have been related to traffic density on the new approach road and loss of greenfield sites.

It is estimated that building the new approach road will result in a 50% rise in traffic density on a daily basis on the western approach to the airport. This will require considerable expansion in both parking facilities and modifications in existing roads to maintain traffic flow.

Compensation costs for greenfield site acquisition have been built into the project budget, and wherever possible existing brownfield sites have been designated for any expansion of parking facilities.

Costings

These are shown in Table II of the full report.

Building schedule

This is given in Appendix C of the full report.
The writer’s responsibilities

In order to produce the executive summary, you need to have a very clear understanding of the document as a whole. You will also need to know exactly what conclusions can be drawn from it, and the nature of any decision which are to be taken.

If you have only been actively engaged in a part or only one aspect of the whole process with which the report deals, you will need to check with the ‘core participants’ that your understanding of the details is complete and correct.

For instance, you might be given the responsibility for preparing an executive summary simply as a secretarial task. You might not have attended crucial decision-making meetings or done any of the original research with which the report deals. In such cases you should prepare the summary in close liaison with the principal figures associated with the report.

These might be a managing director, a lead researcher, or the chair and secretary of a committee.

© Roy Johnson 2012

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How to write numbered lists

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tutorial, guidance notes, tips, and conventions

Numbered lists – definition

Numbered lists are used when it is important to draw attention to individual items in a group. They are also used to emphasise an ordered sequence.

Putting items in a numbered list helps a reader to see them both individually and as group. Both can be seen at the same time. Here’s an example:

Our main branch stocks –

  1. electrical goods
  2. household furniture
  3. domestic appliances
  4. leisure and sportswear
  5. fashion and accessories

You can see that the list reveals these different categories of goods more clearly than if the same information is presented in a sentence, with the items separated by commas.

Our main branch stocks electrical goods, household furniture, domestic appliances, leisure and sportswear, fashion and accessories.

Sequence in numbered lists

Numbered lists are especially useful if it is important that the items follow a particular sequence. Here’s an example from a recipe:

Basic scrambled eggs

  1. Melt two ounces of butter in a pan.
  2. Beat two fresh eggs in a bowl.
  3. Add one third of a cup of milk.
  4. Add a pinch of salt and pepper.
  5. Whisk until frothy.
  6. Pour mixture into pan.
  7. Stir continuously until semi-firm.
Parallelism in lists

Numbered and bulleted lists work best when each of the items listed is expressed in the same way. This is known as grammatical parallelism. In the example above, notice that each item begins with an action verb (Melt, Beat, Add) followed by the instruction.

In the next bad example, the items are expressed in a variety of grammatical forms. This blurrs the message being conveyed. In fact the items are also different in kind, because some are instructions, whilst others are information.

Fire regulations [BAD example]

  1. When the fire alarm goes off, you should leave the building.
  2. DON’T use the main stairway, as this could be dangerous.
  3. All fire exits are clearly marked.
  4. The main assembly point is located behind the warehouse.
Punctuation of lists

If the items in the list are expressed as complete sentences, they should be puctuated in the normal way. This means starting with a capital letter and ending with a full stop.

Health and safety regulations

  1. All doors must be locked by 6.00 pm.
  2. Smoking is not permitted in the building.
  3. All staff must be trained in the new fire regulations.
  4. No personal belongings may be left in the office overnight.

If the list items are sentence fragments, short phrases, or single words, there is no need to follow the normal rules of punctuation.

You will need five tools to complete this task:

  1. a screwdriver
  2. a hammer
  3. a spirit level
  4. a pair of pliers
  5. a measuring tape
Indentation of lists

It is common for numbered lists to be shown indented from the rest of the text – as they are on this page.

You can do this manually using the INDENT or TAB key on your keyboard. If you are using Microsoft Word, it will try to take over this process from you, indenting and numbering each sucessive line. This can be very annoying.

Nested lists

Sometimes it may be necessary to have a list within a list. This sometimes happens in lengthy and complex reports.

There are three key issues to be observed in cases of nested lists:

  1. The same general rules of presentation apply.
  2. Indetation is increased to include double indentation.
  3. The nested list needs a different system of numbering.

The secondary system of numbering should be easily distinguishable from the first. Use Roman numerals if necessary. If the numerical ordering is less important, it might be better to use an alphabetical system (a, b, c) or even revert to a bulleted list.

Numbered lists

Numbering systems

The numbers shown in a list can be offered as Arabic numbers (3, 4, 5, 6) or as Roman numerals (VII, XII, IV — or — iii, iv, v, vi). Avoid using Roman numerals unless you have a pressing need to do so, because this gives the reader extra work in comprehension.

Most word-processors will have this numbering feature automated. In Microsoft Word for instance, look under Paragraph -> Numbering.

There is not much point in having a list of items which goes into double figures or beyond. Readers will not be able to remember the order of the items. An exception can be made if it is a document that will be printed and used as a reference guide.

© Roy Johnson 2012

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Hyphens in essays

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1. Hyphens in essays are most commonly used to join words when forming compounds:

mother-in-law     president-elect

matter-of-fact     author-critic

2. They are also used after prefixes – especially where it is necessary to avoid an awkward or confusing sequence of letters:

re-enter    co-operation    pre-ignition

3. Notice the difference between a compound word and the same terms used separately:

a fifteenth-century manuscript     in the fifteenth century

4. Hyphens should be used where it is necessary to avoid ambiguity:

two-year-old cats   — two year-old cats

In the first case, all the cats are two years old. In the second case, two cats are each one year old.

5. Hyphens should also be used to distinguish terms which are spelled identically, but which have different meanings:

reformation  re-formation
recover   re-cover
resign   re-sign

6. Hyphens are used when new terms are formed from compounds, but they are dropped when the compound is accepted into common usage. (This process is usually more rapid in the USA than in Europe.)

bathtub —   was once bath-tub

bookshelf —   was once book-shelf

clubhouse —   was once club-house

7. This phenomenon is currently visible in computer technology,where all three forms of a term may co-exist:

Word processor —   Word-processor —   Wordprocessor

© Roy Johnson 2003

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Instruction terms in essay questions

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1. Instruction terms are words commonly used in essay questions. They instruct or direct you in the approach you should take towards the proposition of the question.

2. The exact meaning of these terms will vary depending upon the subject being studied. The following give some idea of what they normally mean for essays and examination questions.

3. Think carefully about the meaning of these terms in relation to the remainder of the question. Even though you might feel confident, do not become blasé or inattentive. Sometimes even experienced students forget the important difference between Compare and Contrast.

4. Try to understand exactly what an instruction is asking you to do – but be reasonable. Don’t look for problems where they might not exist. If in doubt, ask your tutor.

GLOSSARY

account for
Explain the reasons for, giving an indication of all relevant circumstances. Not to be confused with ‘Give an account of’ which asks only for a detailed description.

analyse
Study in depth, identifying and describing in detail the main characteristics.

argue
Put forward a proposition, then illustrate it, discuss its significance, and defend it against possible counter-charges.

assess
Examine closely, with a view to ‘weighing up’ a particular situation. Consider in a balanced way the strengths and weaknesses or points for and against a proposition. In conclusion, state your judgement clearly.

comment
State clearly and in moderate fashion your opinions on the material in question. Support your views with reference to suitable evidence or explanations.

compare
Look for similarities and differences between two or more things.

contrast
Deliberately single out and emphasise the differences and dissimilarities between two or more things.

criticise
Give your judgement about a statement or a body of work; explore its implications, discussing all the evidence which is available. Be specific in your examination.

define
Set down the precise meaning of something. Be prepared to state the limits of the definition. Take note of multiple meanings if they exist.

describe
Give a detailed and comprehensive account of something.

discuss
Investigate and examine by careful argument. Explore the implications and the advantages or disadvantages. Debate the case and possibly consider any alternatives. This is probably the most common instruction term. It is inviting you to say something interesting in response to the topic in question. You can choose your own approach.

evaluate
Make an appraisal of the worth of something in the light of its truth or utility. Emphasise the views of authorities as well as your personal estimation.

explain
Make plain. Account for. Clarify, interpret, and spell out the material you present, giving reasons for important features or developments.

how far …
Similar to questions which begin ‘To what extent…‘. You are expected to make your case or present your argument, whilst showing an awareness that alternate or even contradictory explanations may exist. Careful assessment and weighing of evidence are called for.

identify
Pick out what you regard as the key features of something, perhaps making clear the criteria you use in doing so.

illustrate
Make clear and explicit by the discussion of concrete examples.

justify
Show adequate grounds for decisions or conclusions. Answer or refute the main objections likely to be made against them.

outline
Give the main features or the general principles of a subject, omitting minor details and emphasising structure or arrangement.

relate
Show how things are connected, and how they possibly affect, cause, or resemble each other.

review
Make a survey of, examining the subject critically.

state
Present the main points in brief, clear form.

summarise
Give a concise account of the main points of a matter, omitting details and examples.

to what extent … Similar to questions which begin ‘How far …‘. This term is used in questions asking you to show your own judgement. It’s unlikely that there will be a black or white answer. You are expected to argue your case, offering evidence to support your view(s). It also gives you the opportunity to discuss both weaknesses and strengths for a case.

trace
Follow the development or history of a topic from some point of origin.

© Roy Johnson 2003

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Introductions in essays

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1. The introductions to essays should address directly the question or topic(s) you have been asked to discuss. Introductions which are clear and direct usually signal the start of essays which will be addressing the relevant issues.

2. You should aim for a bright and crisp opening statement which will be interesting and seize the reader’s attention. The statement should also be directly relevant to the question topic.

3. Do not merely restate the question, and try to avoid repeating the same terms in which it is posed. You may however wish to translate the question into your own words, paraphrasing it as a demonstration that you understand what it calls for.

4. Unless the question specifically calls for it, avoid long-winded ‘definitions’ in which the key terms of the question are explored for all their possible meanings. Your understanding of what the question means should usually be clear from your introductory remarks.

5. The introduction should not normally occupy more than five to ten percent of the total length of the essay. Two hundred words on the first page should normally be enough. More than this might be taking too long to get to the point.

6. If in doubt, go straight to your answer. Some tutors argue that having no introduction at all is better than producing one which is rambling, cloudy, or vague. If all your arguments are directly relevant to the question, your approach to the question will quickly become apparent.

7. Even if you think the question is especially difficult or that it embraces complex issues, you should avoid saying so as part of the introduction. This can create the impression that you are making excuses in advance of your answer.

8. Questions are set to pose problems: your task is to answer them. You might however wish to name or outline any difficulties – so long as you go on to tackle them.

9. Some people use an appropriate quotation as a means of starting the introduction. (This strategy can also be used to round off conclusions).

10. If you use this approach, you should follow the quotation with some interesting observations of your own. Do not give the impression that you are using somebody else’s work as a substitute for your own.

11. The following offers an introductory paragraph in response to a first year undergraduate philosophy question: ‘Are there universals?’

Plato was the first philosopher to deal comprehensively with the concept of universals, and he did so in such a compelling manner that his ideas still have an influential force today. His general method is to set himself questions (through the mouthpiece of Socrates). He begins The Republic by asking ‘What is Justice?’ and goes on in pursuing this question to ask ‘What is the Good?’. This method, it will be seen, somewhat predetermines the nature of his answers.

12. Many people find introductions difficult to write, particularly if this is the first part of the essay assignment they attempt. Don’t feel surprised by this. The reason is likely to be that –

  • You are not sure what you are going to say
  • You may not be sure what it is you are introducing
  • You can’t summarise an argument which doesn’t yet exist

13. The solution to this problem may be to leave the introduction until the essay has been finished – in its first draft. It will be much easier to compose introductory remarks after the first attempt has been produced. You will then have a grasp of your overall argument and maybe some idea of its structure.

14. In some subjects [principally the sciences] you might be required to declare in an introduction the approach your essay will take. You might even give some account of the structure or the sequence of information. If this is the case, the composition of an introduction should create no problems.

© Roy Johnson 2003

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Jargon in essays

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1. Jargon is ‘the technical language of a profession or group’. The implication of this definition is that their language may not be understood by people outside the group.

2. For example, when solicitors use terms such as ‘probate’, ‘conveyance’, and ‘leasehold’, they are using the jargon of their profession, which is usually only understood by other solicitors. Similar examples could be given for doctors, engineers, and even bookbinders.

3. There is nothing wrong when jargon is used amongst members of the same group. It often functions as shorthand, which eliminates the need for lengthy explanations. However, when you are communicating with people outside a group, its use should be minimised.

4. The term jargon in its most negative sense describes the use of technical or obscure terms when addressing a general audience. For instance, a letter from the Inland Revenue to an ordinary member of the public which contains the following sentence is an example of bad manners (and poor communication):

The basis of assessment for Schedule D Case I and II, other than commencement and cessation, is what is termed a previous year basis.

Some steps have been taken to eliminate this occurrence in public documents, but there is still a long way to go.

5. Academic discussion can have its own jargon too, depending upon the subject in question. Terms such as ‘hegemony’ (political philosophy) ‘discourse analysis’ (linguistics) and ‘objective correlative’ (literary studies) would not be recognisable by an everyday reader, though they might be understood by someone studying the same subject.

6. Whatever the jargon of your own discipline, it should be used with precision, accuracy, and above all restraint. Only use the specialised terms of your subject if you are quite sure of their meaning.

7. Never use jargon to show off or ‘impress’ your reader. It is likely to create the opposite effect. Similarly, do not take half-understood jargon from one discipline and import it into another.

8. Take the trouble to learn the meanings of these specialised terms within the context of your subject. A word might have a particular meaning when used within a subject discipline which it does not have in general usage.

9. Do not use a jargon term where perfectly ordinary terms will be just as effective. There is not much virtue in using terms such as ‘aerated beverages’ instead of ‘fizzy drinks’. These simply cause disruptions in tone and create a weak style.

10. Here is an even more pretentious example, spotted recently.

‘Moisturising cleansing bar’ [in other words – ‘soap’]

© Roy Johnson 2003

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Key terms in essay questions

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1. Key terms are those parts of a question which either state or reveal its subject.

2. Key terms should be distinguished from instruction terms, which tell you how to approach the question, and how to deal with the subject.

Question
‘Discuss the significance of railways in the Industrial Revolution’

3. Both the terms ‘railways’ and ‘Industrial Revolution’ are key terms here. These are the subject of the question. You are being asked to concentrate on one topic (‘railways’) in relation to a specified historical period (‘the Industrial Revolution’).

4. The term ‘discuss’ on the other hand is an instruction term. This tells you how to approach the question.

5. Don’t expect key terms to jump off the page at you – or to be
unproblematic. Sometimes you will need to think carefully about the possible implications of the subject. They might also be expressed in very ordinary language.

Question
‘To what extent was Clement Atlee a successful politician?’

6. It is the term ‘To what extent’ which acts as an instruction: you are free to construct your own response. The key term is ‘successful politician’, which isn’t as obvious as it might first appear. Does ‘successful’ mean winning general elections, or being the author of policies which are adopted? You would need to give careful thought to these issues.

6. In order to make these distinctions (particularly when they are not obvious) you should be prepared to analyse questions very carefully.

© Roy Johnson 2003

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Line references in essays

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1. Some texts – such as long poems, plays, works of philosophy, or the Bible – require line references. You should identify the source of your first quotation with a numbered endnote. Then add a line number, thus:

NOTES
1. Tony Harrison, Selected Poems, Penguin, 1984, p.181, l.26.

2. If all your subsequent references will be to this text, you may
add a brief note:

All subsequent line and page references are to this edition.

Following this first full reference, you may afterwards give only a line number after the quotation in your text.

3. There is no need to give line references when quoting from a short text (say, up to twenty lines). Just give the source as an endnote to your first quotation.

4. When giving references to quotations from texts such as plays, the convention is to give the information in the sequence as follows:

Act – Scene – Line number

Act II,   Sc iv,   l.129

5. Notice that the act number is usually given as a Roman numeral in capitals (II), the scene number in lower case (iv), and the line reference in Arabic numerals (129). This type of notation is normally abbreviated to II.iv.129

6. Remember that you should produce your own argument first, and then add supporting quotations afterwards. Unless the essay question asks you to do so, you should not normally quote first and then offer a commentary on the extract.

© Roy Johnson 2003

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