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Literacy and the Politics of Writing

June 19, 2009 by Roy Johnson

This book examines some of the fundamental questions about writing. What is it? What is it for? How is it related to literacy? It’s also about the philosophy of information storage and transmission. A great deal of what Albertine Gaur has to say centres on the historic development of different writing systems. She shows how they emerged from numbering systems and pictographic records. She covers numeric as well as pictorial and non-linguistic forms of writing in a historical and cultural range which is simply breathtaking.

It’s a scholarly book, pitched at a fairly high intellectual level [well, I found it so] in which terms are left unexplained and you have to keep up with a compact and rapid manner of delivery. She admits that her particular approach of posing questions about the nature of writing raises problems rather than supplying answers, but in identifying gaps in our knowledge she challenges some widespread assumptions.

For instance, she raises a serious criticism of the UK’s current National Literacy Strategy based on what she sees as a fundamental misunderstanding about the nature of the phoneme – the supposed smallest possible unit in the sound system of any language.

Equally tenuous is the connection between language and writing. Speculation, for example, about how well (or how badly) the alphabet represents the English language is more or less spurious for the simple reason that the alphabet was never meant to write English in the first place. The present alphabet goes back some three thousand years via Etruscan and Roman forms of writing to a Greek alphabet which was, in turn, simply an adaptation of the Phoenician consonant script, to a time when the English language did not even exist.

The part of the book I found most interesting was the account of how contemporary writing systems (the Roman alphabet) developed historically from a common Proto-Semitic script. This leads into a consideration of why certain writing systems succeed (the rather difficult Chinese for instance) whereas others don’t. It usually comes down to politics.

Some people used to believe in a monogenesis theory of writing, rather like the monotheistic religious belief – one source, one author, one instant moment of creation. She comprehensively debunks this myth, but then very broadmindedly goes on to discuss examples of people who have actually invented scripts to fit spoken languages.

There are fascinating reflections which arise from asking such apparently simple but profound questions as ‘What is a book?’ The answers to this question, which involve the long transition from the scroll to the collection of separate pages called a codex reveals the origin of much of which we now take for granted: titles, tables of contents, pages, and page numbers.

It’s beautifully illustrated with pictures of rare texts, unusual scripts and printings, and examples of writing systems from all over the globe, Albertine Gaur was formerly head of Oriental Manuscripts and Printed Books at the British Library. It’s quite clear that she knows these objects intimately, and this book is her attempt to share her knowledge and enthusiasm for them. Anyone who is interested in the philosophy of writing or the book as a physical object will profit from the encounter.

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Albertine Gaur, Literacy and The Politics of Writing, Bristol: Intellect, 2000, pp.188, ISBN 1904705065

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Literacy in the New Media Age

July 2, 2009 by Roy Johnson

theoretical study of writing in the digital age

This is an investigation of the effect of new media on what Gunter Kress calls ‘alphabetic writing’. He is arguing that multimedia and the screen are starting to challenge the page as the natural medium of writing – and that this in turn is affecting the way we write. It’s certainly true that writing for the screen has to be more immediate and heavily chunked than writing for the page, and Kress also argues that the screen is making graphic images more important as a medium of communication.

He points out quite rightly that speech and writing are two completely separate systems (which is why many people have problems with writing). The alphabet is actually a loose transcription system for translating between them. His basic argument is that all communication (including linguistics) should be seen as a subset of semiotics. There’s actually not very much about new media discussed – merely an assumption that iconic or visual communication is challenging the dominance of writing.

However, he does make the interesting observation that computers put users in charge of page layout in a way which gives new emphasis to design, as well as providing interactivity between writer and reader.

Having argued that all texts are a result of ideological relationships between author and reader, he even attempts a quasi-political analysis of punctuation. This is not really persuasive, and founders in his attempts to explain or excuse his examples of what is no more than poor writing.

But he does end on an interesting topic of reading paths. That is, the manner in which readers have to construct their own navigational routes when confronting what he calls ‘multimodal’ texts – ones with pictures and words, such as magazines and web pages, for instance.

Although he claims to have left behind an academic style so as to communicate with a wider audience, he writes in a dense and rather abstract manner. The results will be of interest to linguists, educational theorists, and semiologists – though those approaching it with an interest in new media might be a little disappointed.

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Gunther Kress, Literacy in the New Media Age, London: Routledge, 2003, pp.186, ISBN: 041525356X

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Mother Tongue

May 31, 2009 by Roy Johnson

English language – its history and peculiarities

If you are interested in language, this is the sort of book which will both entertain you and stimulate you to learn more. Bill Bryson re-tells the history of the English language in a way which is both amusing and well-informed. His account is shot through with a gift for bringing statistics alive and illustrating complex issues with striking anecdotes. He covers the history of the language, its odd spelling system, and its even stranger pronunciation; varieties of English from around the world; American English; swearing; where words and names come from, and how English is likely to develop in future.

He has an excellent chapter on the irregularities of English spelling. This explains why problems occur, he outlines the various doomed schemes for spelling reform, and he even mounts a persuasive defence of retaining all the irregularities.

Imposing Latin rules on English structure is a little like trying to play baseball in ice skates

He is astonishingly well informed. Although his principal focus is English, you will come away with a lot of information on many other languages. Basque for instance is not related to any other language in the world. [Not many people know that.]

His general approach is refreshingly democratic and anti-stuffy. Most of the people who have tried to regulate language have failed, and he is happy to explain where they have gone wrong.

He pays homage to the great dictionary compilers – Samuel Johnson, Noah Webster, and John Murray – all of them amateurs with no professional training – and he is quite obviously intimately acquainted with their works.

There’s a very amusing chapter on swearing in which he tackles the hard Anglo-Saxon words head on – without any sense of coyness.

Bill Bryson has recently become a best-selling travel writer This book demonstrates the solid foundations of scholarly linguistic knowledge on which that reputation has been built.

It’s packed with interesting nuggets of information about English in particular and language in general. Readable; entertaining; highly recommended.

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Bill Bryson, Mother Tongue, London: Penguin Books, 2nd edn, 2009, pp.288, ISBN: 0141040084

Orality and Literacy

July 13, 2009 by Roy Johnson

Speaking, Writing, Technology, and the Mind

Orality and Literacy has become a classic since it was first published in 1982. It is concerned with the differences between oral and literary cultures. In making this exploration, it throws light onto the essential elements of writing which will be of interest to anyone concerned with the process at a theoretical or deeper level. It starts with the observation that speech and writing are two separate systems, and that ‘oral literature’ is a contradiction in terms. Much of the early argument deals with the issues of ‘authorship’ of Homer’s two epics The Odyssey and The Iliad. Were they written or spoken?

He suggests a fundamental difference in oral culture and its dependence on formulas, cliche, and kennings. Not an oak tree, but ‘the noble oak’; not the Mediterranean, but ‘the wine dark sea’. He also makes interesting use of the work of the Soviet psychologist Luria [also recommended by neurologist Oliver Sacks] to demonstrate the non-abstract thinking of people in oral cultures.

You’ve got to be prepared for some abstract but often delightful language in his expression. Terms such as ‘verbomotor lifestyle’, ‘chirographic culture’, and ‘noetic economy’ nestle alongside some compressed reflections on language, time, space, and our sense of self.

The second part of the book deals with the relationship between consciousness, writing, and technology from the relatively recent 3500 BC onwards. He explains the importance of the alphabet (a one-off invention) and even argues that writing down words – as distinct from speaking them – has an effect on our thought process.

without writing, human consciousness cannot achieve its true potential, cannot produce … beautiful and powerful creations

His comments on the relationship between writing and the body (headings, chapters, footers) are wonderfully suggestive, as are his observations on the fictionality of the addressee in personal diaries. He also dives into the pedagogical debates on language, arguing cogently that whilst all dialects are potentially equal in that they must use the same grammar, it is bad practice not to urge exposure to the full grapholect of the written language, which has “infinitely more resources”

En passant, there’s a very good account of classical rhetoric (antinomasia, paradiastole) which explains why this was important to classical Greeks. He even has an explanation for the importance of female authors in the rise of the novel.

Next comes the importance of space in the rise of print, and the origin and significance of things we take for granted – such as title and content pages, indexes, paragraphs, even page numbers. These further separate print from oral culture and make the book less of a recording of something spoken, more an object in its own right.

The latter parts of the book take his observations into the realm of literature and criticism, using the examples of narrative, closure, and character to illustrate the changes from an oral to a print culture.

He ends with what he calls ‘theorems’ – topics for further consideration in the orality-literacy shift. These include literary history, New Criticism, Structuralism, Deconstruction, and Reader-response Theory.

This is a book which throws off thought-provoking ideas on every page. It has been inexplicably out of print for some time. If you are interested in the psychology or the philosophy of what it means to produce writing on paper or screen – get a copy now.

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Walter J. Ong, Orality and Literacy, London: Routledge, 2002, pp.204, ISBN: 0415281294

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Page layout – how to display writing

September 9, 2009 by Roy Johnson

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Page layout – definition

Page layout is the physical organisation of text on the page, the screen, or any other medium of written communication.

It refers to the visual conventions of arranging text to assist reading and comprehension.

Examples

Good layout includes effective use of the following common features:

page margins
indentation
paragraphs
line spacing
justification
centring

type style
type size
italics
bold
capitals
underlining

Use

There are conventions of layout in written communication in English. Some of these are based purely on function, and some on tradition.

The modern trend is towards layout which results in fast and easy reading of the page.

Layout complements content in efficient communication. It facilitates the reading and the comprehensibility of the text.

NB! Readers are affected by these conventions, even though they may not be aware of them.

The conventions of layout for most writing (printed or written) are designed to make comprehension easier for readers. They are as follows:

text is surrounded by margins on the page
continuous writing is divided into paragraphs
paragraphs are separated by double spaces, or by indentation
sentences are separated by a single space
emphasis is indicated by italics or bold
headings are indicated by larger type size or emphasis [or both]
headings and sub-headings used to create logical organisation
indentation and spacing is used to present lists and diagrams

All this might seem rather obvious, but many people have difficulty reproducing or controlling these conventions.

These ‘rules’ apply to all languages which are written from left to right, and from the top to the bottom of the page. [Some languages are not!]

Most of these conventions can be reproduced in handwriting, as well as by typewriting and word-processing.

Faulty or inappropriate layout can seriously affect the legibility of text, and thus its comprehension.

Research shows that readers assimilate the content of a page in the following order:

pictures
diagrams
tables
bulleted lists
headings
continuous text

Layout choices. For every type of written communication, the writer has a choice to make regarding layout. An awareness of the conventions appropriate to the contents will make the writing more effective.

The layout for personal letters is known and used by most writers, as is the convention for addressing the accompanying envelope. Elements of the address are arranged on separate lines:

Mrs J Fingerbottom
14 Oildrum Lane
Accrington
Lancashire

Literary texts

Literary texts (stories, novels, biographies) are produced with layout conventions of which most people are unconsciously aware:

serifed type face
type size large enough for the normally sighted
between ten and twenty words per line
numbered pages and chapters
generous margins

Business documents

Contemporary business documents are often laid out following conventions which arise from economic considerations. [Time spent deciphering memos, reports, and proposals represent financial loss.]

A typical business document might have the following features:

sub-headings in the left margin opposite related paragraphs
small blocks of text with no more than five sentences
blocks of text separated by horizontal lines or double-spacing
extensive use of bulleted lists
document structure reflected in type size and emphasis

Newspapers

Newspapers have very distinctive conventions of layout which make them easily recognisable:

banner headlines in bold sans-serif type
body text in small serifed type
text arranged in narrow columns
text aligned with full justification
all page elements arranged on a ‘grid’
pictures and diagrams straddling columns
boxes and borders surrounding some page elements

Lists of items are easier to read if they are laid out vertically, rather than across the page as a line of text.

Tables are useful when lists become more complex than a collection of items. For instance, bus and train time-tables would be very difficult to use if the information were given as continuous prose.

One important feature of layout related to all text is the choice between serif and sans-serif type.

The serif is a tiny swirl at the tip and foot of letters. The serif aids the reading process by leading the eye from one letter to the next. These occur in type sets [fonts] such as Times Roman, Bookman, and Classroom.

Serif type is used for any substantial passages of text which will be read continuously.

Sans-serif type on the other hand is plain. The edges of letters are straight, and devoid of swirls or serifs. Arial, Helvetica, and Courier are all sans-serif type sets.

Sans-serif is used for impact in short sequences of text which will not require continuous reading. It is often used to effect in titles, headings, and sub-headings.

Children begin to write in sans-serif characters and then graduate to using joined-up writing [which is equivalent to the serifed type style]. Some youngsters find it very difficult to make this transition and continue to write using separate letters — which they call ‘printing’.

Writing of this kind is very difficult to read, and it is discouraged in schools and colleges. This is because it obscures such features as capitalisation. It is a more laborious process for the writer to produce and makes understanding more difficult for the reader.

Two common faults of layout are the use of continuous capital letters in headings, and the use of underlining for emphasis. Both of these features make the text more difficult to read.

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Paragraphs – how to write them

September 11, 2009 by Roy Johnson

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Paragraphs – definition

Paragraphs are (usually) a group of sentences which deal with one topic.

The sentences are related to each other to produce an effect of unity.

The group of sentences form a single unit of meaning.

Examples

The following example of a paragraph is itself the definition of a paragraph:

The central thought or main controlling idea of a paragraph is usually conveyed in what is called a topic sentence. This crucial sentence which states, summarises or clearly expresses the main theme, is the keystone of a well-built paragraph. The topic sentence may come anywhere in the paragraph, though most logically and in most cases it is the first sentence. This immediately tells readers what is coming, and leaves them in no doubt about the overall controlling idea. In a very long paragraph, the initial topic sentence may even be restated or given a more significant emphasis in its conclusion.

Use

Paragraphs are used to divide a long piece of writing into separate sections.

Each of these sections should deal with one issue, or one topic in a sequence.

Paragraphs are a device to create firm structure in writing.

They can also be used to give rhythm, variety, and pace to writing.

NB! If in doubt, keep your paragraphs shorter, rather than longer.

The recommended structure of a typical paragraph in academic writing is as follows. [It is rather like a mini-version of the structure of a complete essay.]

The opening topic sentence
A fuller explanation of the topic sentence
Supporting sentences which explain its significance
The discussion of examples or evidence
A concluding or link sentence

The start of a new paragraph is usually signalled by either a double space between lines, or by indenting the first line of the new paragraph.

Very short paragraphs are often used in literary writing for stylistic effect.

One of the most famous examples of this device comes from the Bible [John 11:35].

When Jesus therefore saw her weeping, and the Jews also weeping which came with her, he groaned in the spirit, and was troubled. And said, Where have ye laid him? They said unto him, Lord, come and see.
Jesus wept.

The longer the paragraph, the more demands it makes on the reader.

The length of paragraphs can be varied to give rhythm and ‘pace’ to a piece of writing [rather like variations in sentence-length].

The last sentence in a paragraph is often used to provide a link to the next.

The following example [written by E.M.Forster] shows the skilful use of an attention-grabbing first sentence, and a concluding sentence which whets the reader’s appetite to know more about the subject:

John Skelton was an East Anglian: he was a poet, also a clergyman, and he was extremely strange. Partly strange because the age in which he flourished – that of the early Tudors – is remote from us, and difficult to interpret. But he was also a strange creature personally, and whatever you think of him when we’ve finished – and you will possibly think badly of him – you will agree that we have been in contact with someone unusual.

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Point of view – how to understand it

September 12, 2009 by Roy Johnson

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Point of view – definition

‘Point of view’ is a term from literary studies which describes the outlook from which events are related.

It is used of a statement which offers a particular viewpoint or perspective on something.

This viewpoint might be that that held personally by the writer or speaker, but it could also be that of a deliberately created fictional character.

Examples

I think Bill’s taste in clothes is appalling.
[My point of view.]
“I think Bill’s taste in clothes is appalling” John said sneeringly.
[John’s point of view.]
She tried desperately to persuade me of her husband’s honesty.
[My point of view.]

Use

‘Point of view’ is an important concept in analysing and understanding both speech and writing.

Point of view may be overt and explicit, or it may be subtly implied.

It is often used to create character by presenting recognisable opinions.

It may also be used to present psychology in depth by revealing unconscious thoughts.

Information may often be presented from a particular point of view without revealing the source – which the observer is invited to guess.

It may also be mischevously imitated for ironic effect.

NB! Point of view is more than just an ‘opinion’. It also implies an identifiable source.

The concept of ‘point of view’ is essentially concerned with identifying the source of information.

This is not always a straightforward matter, because statements may contain more than one point of view.

In the first example – I think Bill’s taste in clothes is appalling – we are given only one point of view: that of the ‘I’ who is making the statement. We have no way of putting this view into any other perspective. Strictly speaking, we do not know if Bill’s taste is bad or not. We only know the opinion of ‘I’ about the matter.

In the second example – “I think Bill’s taste in clothes is appalling” John said sneeringly – the same statement is made by John, and this is reported to us by someone else – the narrator. The narrator informs us that the statement was made ‘sneeringly’. This casts John’s opinion into a critical light, because the term ‘sneering’ carries very negatives overtones.

Thus in this second example we have two points of view – John’s and the narrator’s. One is passing comment on the other. This gives the reader more information with which to make judgements.

In the third example – She tried desperately to persuade me of her husband’s honesty – there are again two points of view, though the second is less obvious this time.

The first point of view is that of the ‘me’ recounting events. This person – the narrator – controls what we know. The second point of view is that of the ‘she’ who is discussing her husband. This view however comes to us from the narrator – the ‘me’.

The terms ‘desperately’ and ‘persuade’ suggest that this effort is being made under emotional pressure – and that the attempt is not succeeding.

But the person recounting this event [the narrator] might have a bias of some kind, or prejudice against the woman. We tend to believe that narrators are telling the truth, but what if this person were a robber who had just broken into the house and was stealing the family jewels?

The point here is that we cannot know if the husband is actually honest or not. We only have two points of view – that of the wife who is trying to persuade a narrator, and failing. [It’s a complex business, isn’t it?]

Sometimes a point of view may be implied rather than directly stated. Consider the following example, from a story which concerns a young girl making a journey at night:

A faint wind blowing off the water ruffled under Fenella’s hat, and she put up her hand to keep it on. It was dark on the Old Warf, very dark; the wool sheds, the cattle trucks, the cranes standing up so high, the little squat railway engine, all seemed carved out of solid darkness. Here and there on a rounded wood pile, that was like the stalk of a huge black mushroom, there hung a lantern, but it seemed afraid to unfurl its timid, quivering light in all that blackness; it burned softly, as if for itself.

[KATHERINE MANSFIELD]

Here the first point of view is that of a narrator – telling the story of Fenella, the young girl. But then in the second sentence, starting with terms such as ‘cranes standing up so high’ and ‘the little squat railway engine’, the events are narrated from the young girl’s point of view – as they might seem to her.

This is a very typical example of a writer using ‘point of view’ to offer readers an imaginative experience – in this case seeing the world as it would be perceived by a young girl.

Point of view may also be impersonated, assumed, or mischevously implied in both speech and writing for ironic effect.

To summarise, point of view is important because we need to place any statement into a context before we can evaluate it properly.

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Punctuation – how to use it correctly

September 12, 2009 by Roy Johnson

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Punctuation – definition

Punctuation in English language is used in writing to show the stress, ryhthm, and tone of the spoken word.

It is also used to clarify the meaning of sentences.

Examples

There are four common marks of punctuation:

These represent pauses of increasing length in a sentence.

comma [ , ] semicolon [ ; ]

colon [ : ] full stop [ . ]

Use

The following paragraph uses all the four common marks of punctation.

Punctuation should always be used lightly, even sparingly, and as accurately as possible. You will discover through practice that there are three basic rules: the comma, semicolon, and colon mark increasingly long pauses; full stops are used to separate distinct sentences; and a new paragraph should always
be employed to begin a new topic or point of argument.

NB! ‘Punctuation’ in speech is produced by tone, rhythm, stress, and intonation.

The four most common marks of punctuation are dealt with in detail in their own sections:

commas – semicolons – colons – full stops

The other common marks of punctuation are described below:

brackets – exclamation mark

dash – oblique stroke

hyphen – question mark

Some miscellaneous remarks on punctuation.

Brackets (these) are used to insert a remark (like this, for instance) or a qualification of some sort into a sentence.

Take care! If they are used too frequently they create a choppy, unsettling effect.

Full details in the section on brackets.

The dash (—) is used to indicate a sudden change of thought, an additional comment, or a dramatic qualification.

That was the end of the matter — or so we thought.

Dashes can also be used in pairs to insert a comment or a short list:

Everything — furniture, paintings, and books — survived the fire.

They should not be used as a substitute for brackets, or mixed with them.

The dash is not the same thing as the hyphen (which is shorter) but this distinction is rarely made in the UK.

The exclamation mark (!) indicates surprise, anger, or alarm.

What a mess!
Get out of this house at once!
The ship is sinking! Jump in the lifeboat!

Exclamation marks should be used with restraint. The more frequently they occur, the weaker becomes their effect.

The novelist F. Scott Fitzgerald once remarked that using an exclamation mark was rather like laughing at your own jokes.

The question mark [?] is used to show that a question has been raised.

The question mark is always placed at the end of the sentence.

The following examples are questions:

What are you going to do?
How much is that doggy in the window?
Why is that woman staring at us?

Since the question mark is placed at the end of a sentence, no full stop is required. [If you look closely, you will see that the question mark (like the exclamation mark) contains its own full stop.]

The following are not questions.

He wondered what to do next.
She asked herself the same question.
What will happen to them is a mystery.

The hyphen [ – ] is a short dash used to connect (parts of) words.

These might be prefixes:

re-enter co-operate pre-enrol

They can be compound adjectives:

multi-storey car park extra-marital sex

They can be used when when forming compounds such as

son-in-law couldn’t-care-less

The oblique stroke [ / ] is sometimes used to separate items in a list:

oil/water mix Kent/Surrey boundary

italic/Roman type 1972/73

It should not be used as a substitute for words such as and, plus, and or.

Try to avoid the either/or construction and such lazy (and ugly) compounds as this:

‘it will help to create an entire social/sexual/ideological system’.

The oblique stroke might be useful when taking notes, but it should be avoided in formal writing for the sake of elegance.

Miscellaneous remarks on punctuation.

Many aspects of punctuation are ultimately a matter of personal preference and literary style.

The general tendency in most public writing today is to minimise the amount of punctuation used.

There are also minor differences in practice between the UK and the USA.

The suggestions made above are based generally on conventions in the UK.

Double punctuation [“What’s the matter!?”] is rarely used, except in very informal writing such as personal letters or diaries.

The combination of colon-plus-dash [: — ] is never necessary. Some people use this [it’s called ‘the pointer’] to indicate that a list will follow, but the colon alone should be sufficient.

The importance of punctuation can be illustrated by comparing the two following letters. In both cases, the text is the same. It’s the punctuation which makes all the difference!

Dear John:

I want a man who knows what love is all about. You are generous, kind, thoughtful. People who are not like you admit to being useless and inferior. You have ruined me for other men. I yearn for you. I have no feelings whatsoever when we’re apart. I can be forever happy — will you let me be yours?

Gloria

Dear John:

I want a man who knows what love is. All about you are generous, kind, thoughtful people, who are not like you. Admit to being useless and inferior. You have ruined me. For other men, I yearn. For you, I have no feelings whatsoever. When we’re apart, I can be forever happy. Will you let me be?

Yours, Gloria

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Semicolons – how to use them

September 13, 2009 by Roy Johnson

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Semicolons – definition

The semicolon [ ; ] marks a long pause in a sentence.

It is half way between a comma and a colon.

Examples

Neither of us spoke; we merely waited to see what would happen.

He usually took great care; even so he made a few errors.

Four objects lay on the desk: a large book; a spiral-bound notepad; a glass vase containing flowers; and a silver propelling pencil.

Use

Semicolons are used between clauses which could stand alone, but which are closely related.

They are also used to punctuate lists in continuous prose writing.

NB! If you’re in any doubt about the semicolon – don’t use it.

The semicolon marks a pause which is longer than a comma, but not as long as a colon. This is a subtle distinction.

It is most commonly used between clauses which could be expressed as separate sentences, but which have some logical connection.

For instance, in the following example there could be a full stop after ‘England’:

Rutland was formerly the smallest county in England; no other area in the land was famous for so little.

The semicolon is used to avoid ambiguity in sentences composed of phrases of different length and a mixed content:

The Chairman welcomed the President, Dr Garvey; the Vice-President Mr Barncroft and his wife; several delegates from the United States; and members of the public who had been invited to attend.

Because the semicolon may be used instead of a full stop, some people use it without discrimination. They connect clause after clause with semicolons where no real link exists between them. This creates grammatical confusion and very poor style.

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Sentences – how to use them correctly

September 13, 2009 by Roy Johnson

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Sentences – definition

A sentence is a group of words which is usually a grammatically complete statement.

It is often the expression of a thought.

In writing, sentences should begin with a capital letter and end with a full stop.

Examples

Command Keep left.

Question Is James joining us for breakfast?

Statement Smoking can damage your health.

A normal sentence in English usually contains at least three elements: a subject, a verb, and an object.

Subject Verb Object

The cat ate the goldfish

My friend wants your address

Some sheep have black fleece

Subject	Verb	Object
The cat	ate	the goldfish
My friend	wants	your address
Some sheep	have	black fleece

Use

The sentence is a unit of meaning in both speech and writing.

We speak in sentences automatically from the time we first acquire language.

A sentence is defined as a grammatically complete unit, but it might need other sentences around it to make its meaning clear.

Constructing written sentences may be difficult. This is a skill which has to be learned.

Written sentences may be very short [‘Jesus wept’] or very long, but their underlying structure must follow grammatical conventions.

NB! Short sentences help to create clear expression. Keep them short. Keep them simple.

There are various kinds of sentences – simple, complex, and compound.

A simple sentence is one which contains phrases rather than clauses. A simple sentence contains one subject and one object or predicate. For example:

Subject Verb Predicate

I am the head of this department.

We won last Saturday’s match.

Jean is in the house.

Subject	Verb	Predicate
I	am	the head of this department.
We	won	last Saturday’s match.
Jean	is	in the house.

In all the examples above, when the subject is removed we are left with a phrase – an utterance which has no finite verb.

The expressions ‘in the house’, ‘last Saturday’s match’, and ‘the head of this department’, are all phrases not clauses.

A complex sentence contains one or more subordinate clauses. In the examples which follow, the subordinate clause is emphasised.

The suspect denied that he had been in the neighbourhood.

You won’t persuade me to stay no matter how hard you try.

Despite the fact that I had ordered the meal, I left the restaurant when I saw him arrive.

I went out shopping, although it was raining, and bought a basket of fruit.

In all these examples, the removal of the main clause leaves another clause (an utterance with a finite verb) and not a phrase.

A compound sentence is one in which contains two or more co-ordinating parts.

It’s starting to rain // and I have left my deck-chair outside.

The film we saw last night // was interesting and enjoyable.

We have no red towels // but we have plenty of green ones.

The following terms can be used to classify types of sentences by their function.

A statement – grammatically defined by the position of the subject immediately before the verb:

The pen is mightier than the sword.

A question – grammatically defined by the initial element being ‘how’, ‘what’, ‘when’, ‘where’, or ‘why’:

How many spoons are in that box?

A command – grammatically defined by the initial positioning of the verb:

Go to the bus stop and wait for your father.

An exclamation – grammatically defined by an initial ‘what’, ‘how’, and the rest of the utterance being in statement form:

What a pity it’s raining for our picnic!

It is possible to have meaningful sentences which do not have all three normal elements:

[Subject – Verb – Object]

In such cases, any missing part is usually implied –

‘[I] thankyou’.

Many people lose grammatical control of their sentences because they use:

features from speech
conversational style
badly linked phrases
vague punctuation
faulty syntax

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