Tutorials, Study Guides & More
How-to guides, glossaries, timelines, bibliographies, and free lessons
| Tag(s) | Function/Name |
|---|---|
| <P></P> | paragraph |
| <BR> | break [new line] |
| <B></B> | bold |
| <I></I> | italics |
| <H1></H1> | heading |
| <A HREF=”name.htm”></A> | hypertext link |
| <IMG SRC=”name.gif”> | link to image source |
| <HR SIZE=1> | horizontal rule |
| <CENTER></CENTER> | centre |
| <FONT></FONT> | font size/colour |
| <OL></OL> | ordered list |
| <UL></UL> | unordered list |
| <LI></LI> | list item |
| <TABLE></TABLE> | table |
| <TR></TR> | table row |
| <TD></TD> | table data |
© Roy Johnson 2002
1. Everybody runs into technical problems when they first create Web pages. Don’t feel bad about it. Just learn from your mistakes.
2. The most common problems are caused by small details and the need for complete accuracy.
3. Filenames must be spelled accurately. They should not contain any spaces, and some keyboard characters – such as /, &, and @ – are not allowed. [These are reserved for transmitting data over the Web.]
4. It is safest to use all lower-case letters. Some computers will treat filename.htm and Filename.htm as different files.
5. Tags must be opened and closed rigorously. If you type the following, it will not work:
<B>Put this in bold<B>
This is because the tag has not been properly closed with </B>.
6. The same would happen if you were to miss one of the angled brackets – <B>Put this in bold /B>.
7. HTML code must be completely accurate. The following examples all contain mistakes:
<A HREF=”filename.htm>filename</A>
<BODY BGCOLOUR=”AQUA”>
<FONT SIZE =”5″>some text here</FONT>
8. In the first example, one double quote mark is missing; in the second the spelling is incorrect; and in the third, there is a space. The correct codes are:
<A HREF=”filename.htm”>filename</A>
<BODY BGCOLOR=”AQUA”>
<FONT SIZE=”5″>some text here</FONT>
9. Missing items. It is very easy to omit a small element of code – especially if you are keying it in manually. For instance if you typed –
<A HREF=”filename.htm”filename</A>
– this would not show up on the screen. In fact nothing you typed after it would appear. That’s because the angled bracket is missing after the file name.
10. Bad syntax. Tags must be opened and closed in the correct sequence. The following is an example of incorrect ‘nesting’ of tags.
<FONT SIZE=5><B>big and bold</FONT></B>
This is the correct sequence:
<FONT SIZE=5><B>big and bold</B></FONT>
1. The default background colour of a web page is grey – which is not very exciting.
2. That is, grey is the colour which will show in a browser window unless you tell it to do otherwise. Web design guru David Siegel says that web pages such as this are – “like slide presentations shown on a cement wall”.
3. There are three easy ways to add colour to your pages:
4. Let’s look at each of these options in turn.
The font colour tag
5. When you specify the FACE or SIZE of your FONT, you can also say what COLOR you want it to be.
<FONT=”Arial COLOR=”RED”>my web pages</FONT>
This would produce the following effect.
The words ‘my web pages‘ are coloured red.
6. Other common colours are as follows.
Aqua – Fuchsia – Olive – Green – Lime
Blue – Maroon – Teal – Navy – Purple
Background colour
7. Background colour can be used to give colour to a page.
8. The code is inserted into the <BODY> tag at the top of your page. Notice that the term ‘background’ is abbreviated to BG.
<BODY BGCOLOR=”AQUA”>
9. The problem with most of the standard colours is that they are rather strong. They are too demanding, not quiet enough.
10. It is better to choose something more quiet and restrained.
BGCOLOR=”WHITE” is always safe.
BGCOLOR=”#FFFFEF” is more subtle.
[Don’t ask! Just use “#FFFFEF”.]
11. Note that the tag must be given its American spelling of COLOR. This is a very common technical problem.
Tiled graphic file
12. You can also create a coloured background for your page by using a graphic image. This will be ’tiled’ [repeated to fill the space] by
your web browser.
14. The code goes into the BODY tag at the head of your page. Notice that in this case the full term BACKGROUND is used.
<BODY BACKGROUND=”stripe.gif”>
15. You would save the graphic file ‘stripe.gif’ in the same folder as your .htm page.
16. But a tiled graphic makes reading more difficult. It almost always results in a visually disruptive page.
17. It’s usually much better to use a single colour – one which is muted and subtle. Choose something against which black text will stand out clearly.
18. Here are a good example and a ridiculously bad example.
© Roy Johnson 2002
1. Let’s look at each section of a typical HTML page. We’ll see what the code means and what it does.
2. Much of this might seem pretty boring at first – but you will realise later why it can be important.
3. First of all, here is the absolute basic minimum HTML page.
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE>
Page title
</TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
Here is the page content
</BODY>
</HTML>
4. You can see that the structure of the page is a HEAD section, which contains the TITLE, and a BODY section, which contains the contents of what will appear on the page.
5. The first item is actually the <HTML>. This tells the browser “What follows is going to be an HTML page”. Like all the other tags, it is enclosed in angled brackets.
6. The next item is the <HEAD>. This section of the page can contain all sorts of technical data – which we’ll come to in a moment. For now, we’ll notice that it contains the TITLE of the page.
7. The <TITLE> does not appear on the page – so don’t look for it there. It appears at the top of your browser window – saying something like “Page title – Mozilla Firefox” or “Page title – Windows Internet Explorer”.
8. Next comes the <BODY> section. This contains the information you wish to appear in your page. It could be text, graphics, audio files, or even movie clips.
9. Note that each one of these tags must be opened – then closed. Otherwise, the page will not show up in your browser.
10. And that’s it! Those are the basic elements of a web page. But now let’s look at some of the additional features which might appear. For this we go back to the top of the page.
11. The other item which commonly appears in the HEAD section of the page is META data. That is, information about the content of the page. This is usually a DESCRIPTION of the page, and KEYWORDS which summarise its most important topics.
12. This information does not appear in your browser window. It is intended for search engines. They visit your pages [maybe] and want to know how to categorise them and what they contain.
13. Another thing you might see at any point in a web page is COMMENTS.
<!– these are comments –>
14. Anything which appears between <! and > will not show up when you view the page in a browser.
15. What use are these? Many designers use comments to mark special sections of their pages – as in the following example. They make editing easier at a later date.
<!– ######## START OF MAIN TOPIC ######## –>
16. There are many other elements you might find in a typical HTML page – but these are the most basic. Just remember that unless you open and close all your tags correctly, the page may not show up in your browser.
See the page of common problems for examples.
© Roy Johnson 2002
1. Too much text
Some people put far too much text into their pages, and often don’t have margins or breaks between paragraphs. The result is a screen full of text – which is difficult to read. Use plenty of space around your text. It will look more attractive and be easier on the eye.
2. Bad colours
Combining coloured backgrounds with coloured text is dangerous. It can work if it is done with restraint – but many people are attracted to colours which clash and vibrate. For good results – ‘less is more’ is often the case so far as color is concerned.
3. Tiled backgrounds
Background graphics can often make text difficult to read. When a .gif file is tiled across a page, the resulting pattern often creates an effect which is visually disruptive. Use only very pale graphics.
4. Large graphics
These take up a lot of space, and can take a long time to download. People viewing your pages will switch off and go elsewhere. Shrink your pictures in a graphics editing package.
5. Long pages
Most people dislike scrolling through very long pages. They will often not read beyond 2-3 screens of text. The solution is to create separate pages, and put links between them.
6. Hit counters
These make any web site look very amateurish. If your web site is a hobby, you don’t need them. If it is commercial, you will not want to reveal this information. If you are determined to have one, it’s possible to make it invisible. You can record the ‘hits’ – but other people don’t see the results.
7. Animated graphics
These usually distract attention from what you have to say, and they generally look tacky. Unless they are very small, very subtle, and in non-conspicuous positions – leave them off your pages.
8. Garish colours
Your site will look cheap, amateurish, and vulgar if you use too many bright colours. The same is true of bad clip art and animated graphics. Yellow and blue starbursts against a speckly purple background will look naff. Leave those for the funfair.
9. To see a very funny and truly awful collection of bad taste designs, visit the following web site:
10. Well-designed web sites are often based on one of the most memorable slogans to come from the design profession – “Less is more”.
© Roy Johnson 2002
1. Once you have managed to produce a web page full of text, the next thing you usually want to do is add some graphics.
2. You add the graphics using the simple tag –
<IMG SRC=”filename.gif”>
This is inserted into the page at the place where you want the graphic to appear. And the graphic file would need to be saved into the same folder as your filename.htm page.
3. But the graphic will simply appear on the page with text before it and after it. You would probably prefer the text to wrap round the graphic, in the same way that the text is doing here – wouldn’t you? This makes for a neater and more interesting page. Incidentally, your graphic can also be a link. If you click the book cover here, you will be taken to Amazon, where you can order the book. Here’s how to wrap the text around the graphic.
4. Add the following INSIDE the tag
align=”left” [or right]
hspace=”x” [where x=number of pixels]
vspace=”x” [where x=number of pixels]
So the tag should look like this:
<IMG SRC=”filename.gif”align=”left” hspace=”10″ vspace=”5″>
5. This creates a 10 and 5 pixel gap around the side and the bottom of the graphic – to stop your text bumping into the picture.
6. Experiment with the x=number to see the effect.
7. If you want to add another refinement, you can add a border.
border=”x” [where x=number of pixels]
8. And you should set x=0 for no border.
9. You can also add a title:
alt=”Picture courtesy of Media-Pics plc”
10. This will show up on screen when you move your cursor over the graphic. It is NOT a caption to the picture.
11. And you might wish to add the size of your graphic file.
width=”x” [where x=number of pixels]
height=”x” [where x=number of pixels]
12. You find these dimensions by opening the graphic file in your graphics editor and looking at the size or dimensions.
13. Adding the dimensions will help your page download faster – because the browser knows how big a space to leave for the picture before it starts loading.
14. So – here’s an example of all these features in one tag. The items are on separate lines to make them easier to read.
<IMG SRC=”../graphics/hafner.gif”
align=”left” hspace=”7″ vspace=”5″ border=”0″
alt=”The Origins of the Internet”
width=”90″ height=”140″>
© Roy Johnson 2002
1. You can add tables to your web pages. This is usually done for two quite different reasons:
2. This is a simple table containing data:
Size Description 1 Red, size – large, fully boxed 2 Blue, size – medium, unboxed
3. The table borders can be removed to use the same coding for controlling graphics, by setting border=”0″. Here is the same table with its borders removed – actually, hidden.
Size Description 1 Red, size – large, fully boxed 2 Blue, size – medium, unboxed
4. What follows is the basic code for a simple table. COPY this code into one of your template pages. You can then experiment by changing the size of the table and the alignment of data in it.
5. Your data goes inside the table data tags:
<TD>your data goes here</TD>
<TABLE>
<TR>
<TD></TD>
<TD></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD></TD>
<TD></TD>
</TR>
</TABLE>
6. The width of each table data cell can be controlled by adding WIDTH=”X”, where X is the number of pixels:
<TD WIDTH=”150″></TD>
7. The position of data within each cell can be set at LEFT, RIGHT, or CENTER
<TD ALIGN=CENTER></TD>
8. You can use the <P> and <BR> tags within the table data, as you would in a normal page. I have added some colour to the top row, which is technically known as a table header <TH>
| Size | Description |
|---|---|
| 1 | Red, size – large, fully boxed and inflatable. This product comes with a full set of attachments. Free delivery. |
| 2 | Blue, size – medium, unboxed, and non-inflatable. This model is only suitable for use indoors. Not available in UK. |
9. In order to control the vertical position of data within the cell, you need to add the VALIGN coding – which can be TOP, MIDDLE, or BOTTOM. [Note – this is ‘Middle’, not ‘Center’.]
10. The coding for the cells containing numbers in the example above is as follows:
<TD ALIGN=”center” VALIGN=”top”>2</TD>
11. The structure and the appearance of tables can become a much more complex issue. You can add colour to the cells, shading to the borders, and put tables within tables.
12. Many web designers arrange the text on their pages by placing it inside tables – and lots of fancy effects are possible. But these and many other design tricks are gradually being replaced by the use of style sheets.
© Roy Johnson 2002
Access provider
an organisation that provides access to the Internet. Also known as Internet Service Provider (ISP)
Address
The identification of a physical or virtual distinct entity in a network. On the Internet, this network address is called a URL (Uniform Resource Locator). For instance: http://www.gsh.org. [It is important to type these accurately.]
Anonymous ftp
A publicly available Internet file site. Users must sign on as anonymous and enter their email address to connect to an anonymous ftp site.
Apache
An open source Web server package, mostly used on Linux and Solaris platforms.
Applet
A self-contained mini-executable program, such as one written in the Java programming language. It connects with or is designed to work with a larger ‘partner’ program.
Application servers
Software used to provide an interface between systems to enable Web services.
Archie
A program that locates files that are freely available on anonymous ftp sites across the Internet. To use Archie, telnet to one of these sites and login as archie. Type help to obtain full instructions.
ASCII
American Standard Code for Information Interchange. A standard for digital representation of letters, numbers, and control codes; understood by most computers.
ASP
Active Server Pages – a scripting language created by Microsoft for dynamically created web pages and database functions. Web pages created with ASP usually have an .asp suffix.
Attachment
A binary file (such as a document, spreadsheet, or graphic) which is delivered as part of an email message. [NB – some mailing systems will not accept attachments.]
AUP
Acceptable Use Policy. A binding document signed by all users that explains the rules of Internet use at an institution.
Auto responder
An email message that is sent automatically in response to a message to another email address. Also known as Autobot or Infobot.
Backbone
The Central network infrastructure of the Internet is often referred to as the backbone and its allows data to travel from one network to another.
Backup
To make a second copy of a file as a safety measure. The copy may be held on a floppy disk, a zip disk, or on CD-ROM.
Bandwidth
A Term used to describe how much data you can send through a connection to the Net. The transmission capacity of a given medium, in terms of how much data the medium can transmit in a given amount of time. The greater the bandwidth, the faster the rate of data transmission. Information carrying capacity of a communication channel.
Baud rate
The speed at which a modem can deal with information, measured in bits per second, 56Kbps is currently fastest.
Binary
Files which contain eight-bit bytes (as distinct from ASCII files which contain seven-bit bytes). Some systems can only accept ASCII.
BIOS
Basic Input-Output System. This is the small but fundamental program which starts up your computer and allows you to access your software programs.
Bit
An acronym for BInary digiT. It is the basic unit of information in the computer world. A bit is a digit in binary form and carries one of two
values, 0 or 1.
Bitnet
An autonomous network of academic and research sites.
Bookmark
A word or picture ‘marked’ so that you can jump to it by name from
within a list. Also used by browsers to mark frequently visited web sites.
Boot
To switch on a computer. If the machine is re-started whilst running, this is called ‘re-booting’.
Browser
Software that allows users to access and navigate the World Wide Web. Some Web browsers, such as Mosaic and Netscape, are graphical. Lynx is a text-based browser.
BBS
Bulletin Board Service. A forum for users to browse and exchange information. Computer BBSs are accessible by telephone via a personal computer and a modem. Many BBSs are small operations run by a single person that allow only several users to log on at the same time. Some are much larger and allow hundreds of users to login simultaneously to use the system. Huge, commercial examples are America Online, CompuServe, and Prodigy.
Byte
A single computer character, generally eight bits. For example, the letter ‘G’ in binary code is 01000111.
Cache
A section of computer memory set aside for storing frequently-used data from a disk drive, speeding up the transfer of information.
Cascading style sheets
An extension to HTML which allows style features (colour, font size, spacing, and page-layering) to be specified for certain elements of a hypertext document. CSSs are especially useful for making a global change to multiple web pages – because the style is specified just once, often in a separate file.
CD-ROM
Compact Disk – Read Only Memory: A record like storage medium that uses digital and optical laser technology to store about 600Mb of text, pictures, and sound on a single disk. With newer versions (CD-ROMXA, CDTV, CD-i) animations and moving pictures can be retrieved from the discs.
CD-R
Compact Disk – Recordable: blank compact disks on which data can be recorded – but once only.
CD-RW
Compact Disc Re-Writable format: these are blank compact disks that can be recorded over and over again, like a floppy disk.
CGI
Common Gateway Interface – an interactive system installed on Web servers to automatically process information entered into Web page forms.
Checkbox
A small square box which, when clicked on, displays a cross or
tick to show that an option has been selected.
Chip sockets
Most of the microchips used in a computer are soldered directly to the circuit boards but some, including the main processor and some memory components, are mounted into sockets. This is so that they can be easily replaced or upgraded.
Clipboard
A section of a computer’s memory where you can temporarily copy chunks of text, data, graphics, or pictures. Once in the clipboard, the item can be pasted into another part of a document, or transferred to any other application. The clipboard normally holds one object at a time.
Command prompt
The C:> sign in DOS at which codes are typed. These commands control the computer. For many people, this system has been replaced by the Graphic User Interface [GUI] of Windows.
Commercial online services
A company that, for a fee, allows computer users to dial in via modem to access its information and services, which can include Internet access. Examples are America Online, CompuServe, Delphi, and Prodigy.
Compression
A technique to reduce the size of a file in order to make it more manageable and quicker to download. Compressed files have to be extracted using a utility such as PKZip or WinZip. Such files usually have a .zip extension.
Control panel
This is where many of Window’s settings can be viewed. Here you will find icons for most functions including printers, modems and sound.
Cookies
Small text files created by an Internet web site and stored on the user’s computer. A cookie contains information that can help speed access on subsequent visits, such as passwords and details of the user’s display facilities.
CSS (Cascading Style Sheets)
A way of assigning visual style to the content of Web pages. The style sheet deals with colour, fonts, and the position of text – leaving HTML code to describe the structure of the content.
DBA
DataBase Administrator – is software which administers databases. It can carry out the maintenance of a database, including the applications and content structure.
Database
A computer holding large amounts of information that can be searched by an Internet user. A storehouse of information on the Net.
Default setting
The computer or software settings made by the manufacturer. These will remain in place unless you decide to change them.
Defragmentation
Over time, the files on a computer’s hard disk drive become disorganised. Running a defragmentation program restores order and speeds up the reading and writing of data.
DHTML
Dynamic HTML – an integration of JavaScript, Cascading Style Sheets, and the Document Object Model. With DHTML, the content of a web page can move across the screen or respond to user inputs.
Dialogue box
A box which appears on screen, inviting input from the user. Usually to set options, or choose a name for saving files.
Dialup Internet connection
Lets a user dial into an Internet service provider using a modem and telephone line to access the Internet. The user is presented with a text-based set of menus which are used to navigate the Internet. (See SLIP or PPP connections)
Directory
A list of files or other directories on a computer at an Internet site. (Same thing as a folder.)
Domain
The part of the Internet address that specifies your computer’s location in the world. The address is written as a series of names separated by full stops. The most common top level domains are .edu education (US), .net network resource, .com commercial, .gov public bodies
DOS
Disk Operating System. This is a standard operating system, created by Microsoft before the dawn of Windows. DOS manages how files are stored on your computer. It is controlled through commands typed at the command prompt. Even Windows 95 and Windows 98 are still fundamentally dependent on DOS.
Download/upload
To download is to transfer a file from another computer to the user’s computer. To upload is to send a file to another computer.
DVD
Digital Video Disk: This new medium can store large amounts of data on one disk that looks like a CD, including full length films with high-quality sound and pictures.
E-commerce
Performing business transactions on the Internet – which may include the use of credit cards, ‘shopping trolleys’, forms, and secure servers.
Email
Allows users to send and receive messages to each other over the Internet.
Email address
A code representing a unique email user on the Internet. Examples might include – joe-bloggs@sitename.com, g.allthorpe@yahoo.co.uk
Emoticons
Smileys [ these things 🙂 ] and other character art used to express feelings in email communication.
Encryption
A process that turns files into gobbledegook so that they cannot be read, other than by programs containing the appropriate password-protected encryption software.
Executable files
These are programs or self-extracting files with an .exe filename extension. Clicking on an executable file will start the program running.
Expansion cards
Small circuit boards which are plugged into the main motherboard. They are used for controlling the video output, processing sounds, or communicating with modems and network cards.
Extensions
Files are identified by a three or four letter or number code, called an extension. This comes after the full stop following the filename. Common types include .doc and .txt for word-processor documents. Files ending in .gif and .jpg generally contain images. Files ending in .exe and .com usually contain executable programs which load into memory and carry out a set of instructions.
Extranet
A type of Internet Web site that is a closed community protected by a password and/or firewalls. It is typically provided by businesses for suppliers and key customers.
FAQ
Frequently Asked Questions. Files on the Net which store the answers to common questions. If you are stuck, check the FAQs first, before you ask you own question.
FAT
File Allocation Table. The part of a computer’s disk system that decides how and where disk storage space is allocated.
FTP
File Transfer Protocol. An application program that uses TCP/IP protocol to allow you to move files from a distant computer to a local computer using a network like the Internet.
Filter
Hardware or software designed to restrict access to certain areas on the Internet.
Finger
Software that allows the user to enter the address of an Internet site to find information about that system’s users or a particular user. Some finger addresses return other topic-specific information.
Firewall
A security system, usually for networked computers, which controls access in and out of the network.
Flame
To send a harsh, critical email message to another user, usually someone who has violated the rules of netiquette. May be used as a verb or a noun.
Folder/Directory
Two words for the same thing – a space on your hard disk to store related files or documents.
Frames
A device in HTML which allows multiple windows to be viewed simultaneously in one browser screen. Often used by Web designers to assist navigation.
Free-Net
Any one of more than two dozen freely accessible Internet sites, primarily offering community and educational information.
Freeware
Software programs that are free to use, but the author retains control of the original code.
Gigabyte
A measurement of storage space. Equal to a thousand megabytes.
Gopher
A menu-based system for browsing Internet information.
GUI
Graphical user interface. Software designed to allow the user to execute commands by pointing and clicking on icons or text. It’s pronounced ‘Gooey’.
Hacker
A computer user who illegally visits networked computers to look around or cause harm.
Hard disk
A high capacity storage device that a computer uses for programs and data, measured in megabytes or gigabytes. Information held on a hard disk is safe when the power is withdrawn.
Hits
The number of requests for files made to a Web server. A much misunderstood term. It is not the number of unique visitors. A typical Web page is made up of one HTML file, plus a number of graphics. One request for this page results in several hits.
Home page
The first page a user sees when visiting a World Wide Web site.
Host
An Internet company providing storage space for web sites on their server computer(s).
HTML
Hypertext Markup Language. The programming language of the World Wide Web, HTML software turns a document into a hyperlinked World Wide Web page.
HTTP
HyperText Transfer Protocol: The protocol used to provide hypertext links between pages. It is the standard way of transferring HTML documents between Web servers and browsers.
HTTPS
HyperText Transfer Protocol Secure – is used to secure Web sites by using encrypted traffic to and from the user by means of Secure Socket Layer (SSL).
Hypertext/hyperlink
A highlighted word or graphic in a document that, when clicked upon, takes the user to a related piece of information on the Internet. When the cursor passes over a link, it usually changes from an arrow to a pointing hand.
Icon
A small picture displayed on-screen to identify a command or file. Many word-processors use an icon of a magnifying glass to indicate it will start a search function.
Infobot (or mailbot)
An email address that automatically returns information requested by the user.
Internet
The global network of networks that connects more than three million computers (called hosts). The Internet is the virtual space in which users send and receive email, login to remote computers (telnet), browse databases of information (gopher, World Wide Web, WAIS), and send and receive programs (ftp) contained on these computers.
Internet account
Purchased through an Internet service provider, the account assigns a password and email address to an individual or group.
Intranet
A private internal network based on TCP/IP, usually for the information of staff within a business or an organisation.
IRC
Internet Relay Chat. Interactive, real-time discussions between people using text messages. Users log into designated Net computers and join discussions already in progress.
Internet server
A computer that stores data that can be accessed via the Internet.
ISDN
Integrated Services Digital Network – a set of communications standards offered by telephone carriers which provides users with fast Internet connections.
ISP
Internet Service Provider. Any organization that provides access to the Internet. Many ISPs also offer technical assistance to schools looking to become Internet information providers by placing their school’s information online. They also help schools get connected to the Net.
Internet site
A computer connected to the Internet containing information that can be accessed using an Internet navigation tool such as ftp, telnet, gopher, or a Web browser.
IP address
Every computer on the Internet has a unique numerical IP address
assigned to it, such as 123.456.78.9.
J2EE
Java 2 Enterprise Edition. Middleware written in Java used in critical, large-scale networked developments, such as electronic banking.
Java
A programming language developed by Sun Microsystems used for cross-platform Web-based applications. Its primary contribution to the Web has been in the form of Java Server Pages (JSP), J2EE and it is also used in ‘applets’ – mini-programs written in Java that run in browsers.
JavaScript
A scripting language developed by Netscape that adds interactivity to web pages. Its name reflects a shared syntax with the Java programming language.
JPEG
A widely-used graphic file format. Acronym of the Joint Photographic Experts Group. (It’s pronounced ‘Jay-peg’.)
JSP
Java Server Pages – a scripting language based on Java for developing dynamic Web pages and sites. It is typically used on Solaris and Linux platforms.
Junk email
Email messages which are received, but not asked for or even wanted. (Also known as ‘spam’.)
Keyword
A word or words which can be searched for in documents or menus.
Killer application
A software program which is so successful that it corners the market, or inspires people to upgrade their equipment in order to be able to use it.
Knowbot
Software that searches Internet ‘white pages’ and lists of users at large institutions, to find a person’s name and address.
LAN
Local Area Network: A private transmission that interconnects computers within a building or among buildings for the purpose of sharing voice, data, facsimile, and/or video.
Linux
A version of the Unix operating system designed to run on PCs. Controversial because it has been developed as part of the Open Sources movement and given away free of charge. Very popular for Web servers and appliances.
Logon
To sign on to a computer system.
Mailing lists (or Listserv)
There are more than 4,000 topic-oriented, email-based message bases that can be read and posted to. Users subscribe to the lists they want to read and receive messages via email. Mailing lists are operated using listserv software. Thus, many users call mailing lists ‘listservs’. There are two types of lists: moderated and unmoderated. Moderated lists are screened by a human before messages are posted to subscribers. Messages to unmoderated lists are automatically forwarded to subscribers.
Megabyte
A measure of storage space. 1 Mb roughly translates to a million characters of text, or 180,000 words.
Menu
A list of information that leads to documents or other menus.
Middleware
Applications and servers designed to take content from otherwise incompatible back-end data sources (often legacy – that is outdated – systems) and pass it on to Web front-ends.
Mirror
Some FTP sites are so heavily used that in order to relieve the load, their entire contents are copied to and made available by other sites. These are then known as ‘mirror sites’.
Modem
Acronym for MOulate DEModulate. An electronic device that attaches to a computer and links that computer to the online world via a telephone line. Modems are available for any computer, can be internal or external, and come in several speeds, known as the baud rate. The higher the baud rate, the faster the modem. A modem of 56,000 baud is now considered the standard. Most Internet service providers allow you to dial into their systems at rates up to 33,600 baud and beyond.
Motherboard
The main printed circuit board inside a computer, containing the main processing chip, memory chips, plus all the other circuits needed to control the disk drives, the keyboard, and to communicate with plug-in extension cards.
MP3
A popular, highly compressed file format used for music.
MPEG
A family of multimedia standards developed by the Motion Picture Experts Group, commonly used to refer to audio or visual files saved with MPEG compression schemes. Files usually have an .mpg extension (pronounced ‘Em-Peg’).
MySQL
An Open Source development of the SQL language for talking to databases. Most commonly used amongst small business users and run on Linux operating systems.
National Information Infrastructure
The official U.S. government name for the Internet and other computer networks. Commonly known as the Information Superhighway.
Netiquette
The rules of conduct for Internet users. Violating netiquette could result in flaming or removal from a mailing list. Some service providers will even cancel a user’s Internet account, denying him or her access to the Net, if the violation is severe enough.
Netscape
Internet navigation software that allows users to access information through a graphical, point-and-click interface rather than text-only screens or menus. Netscape is known as a Web browser because it accesses World Wide Web information formatted into special home pages using hypertext. Other graphical Web browsers include Microsoft’s Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox, Google Chrome, and Opera.
Net surfer
Someone who browses the Internet with no definite destination.
Network
A group of computers that are connected in some fashion. Most school networks are known as LANs, or Local Area Networks, because they are networks linking computers in one small area. The Internet could be referred to as a WAN, or a Wide Area Network, because it connects computers in more than one local area.
Newsgroups
These are the bulletin boards of the Internet. There are around 20,000 groups covering every subject under the sun. Most IAPs have a newsgroup server which periodically takes all new messages from a newsgroup feed and adds the messages which have been posted by its own users. To access the newsgroups stored on your IAPs newsgroup server you need a newsreader program.
OCR
Optical Character Recognition. Software that translates a scanned image of printed or typewritten text into a plain text file that can be read by a word processor.
Online/Offline
When you are logged onto a computer through your modem, you are said to be online. When you are using your computer but are not connected to a computer through your modem, you’re said to be working offline.
Operating System
The operating system or OS is a program, or a collection of programs, that manages all your computer’s resources – disk drives, RAM, display screen – and controls how files are stored and retrieved.
Packet
A bundle of data transmitted across a network. It contains the source address (where the packet has come from) the destination address (where it’s going to) a packet identifier (what sort of packet it is) and the data being sent.
PC card
Short for PCMCIA – Personal Computer Memory Card International Association. It is a standard-sized module used in laptops for memory expansion and other peripherals, including modem cards.
PCI
Peripheral Component Interconnect. A type of connector on computer motherboards, used for expansion or adapter cards.
PDF
Portable Document Format – a file format developed by Adobe Systems for capturing formatted page layouts for distribution. Requires the proprietary Adobe Acrobat Reader, which is now given away free of charge.
PHP
A scripting language used for developing dynamic Web pages and sites. It is typically used on Solaris and Linux platforms.
Plug-in
An extra bit of software which has to be added to a Web browser before a certain type of file can be viewed. Recent browsers come with the most popular plug-ins pre-installed.
Portal
A Web site that acts as a doorway or introduction to many other Web sites that are sometimes grouped into categories [Yahoo is a famous example].
Posts
Email messages sent to a mailing list or Usenet newsgroup to be read by subscribers or others on the Internet.
Program
Used as a noun – a series of instructions which tell a computer what to do. Used as a verb – the act of writing or revising a program.
Public domain software
Shareware programs that are free to use and modify, as the author has relinquished control over the code.
RAM
Random Access Memory. A computer’s working memory, where programs store information when they are running. The bigger it is, the less time your computer will have to wait to get data from the hard disk drive.
Registry
A large, constantly changing file in Windows 95, containing details of how your computer is set up, and all the programs stored on the hard disk.
RFC
Request for Comments. Online documents that have to do with technical standards for the Internet.
Scandisk
A Windows utility that checks the integrity of data stored on a hard disk drive, identifies problems, and where possible puts them right.
Scanner
A machine that scans a printed image, such as a photograph or a page of text, and turns it into a file that can be displayed and manipulated on a computer.
SCSI
Small Computer System Interface [pronounced ‘Scuzzy’]. A high speed data interface that uses a card, which plugs into an ISA [integrated system architecture] socket on the computer motherboard. SCSI cards that use PCI slots are also available.
Search engine
An online service which can trawl through the contents of the Web (Websites, newsgroups, email addresses) looking for specific phrases or words. The engine asks you for keywords and then provides a list of web sites that contain your chosen words. Clicking on the listed web sites will take you to the relevant web page.
Sectors
Hard disk drives are split into tracks and sectors, which is a way for the computer to identify where particular files or pieces of data are stored.
SGML
Standard Generalised Markup Language – a meta-language that provides a comprehensive set of syntax rules for marking up the structure of documents and data. [HTML is a subset of SGML.]
Shareware
Software programs that you can try before you buy. If you decide to use a program, you should send a payment to the author or publisher.
Signature file
Return address information such as name, telephone number, and email address that users put at the bottom of email messages. Known as a ‘sig’.
SLIP or PPP
Serial Line Internet Protocol (SLIP) or Point to Point Protocol (PPP) Internet connections. Both allow a computer to connect to the Internet using a modem and telephone line. Users then navigate the Internet using software on their own computer. This is in contrast to using a Dialup Internet Connection, where a user is forced to navigate the Net using a text-based set of menus.
SOAP
Simple Object Access Protocol – which provides a way for applications to communicate with each other using XML.
Spam
Slang for posting the same message to multiple newsgroups – frowned on by most people on the Internet.
SQL
Structured Query Language – a standard language for talking to databases.
SSL
Secure Socket Layer – secures Web sites with encrypted traffic to and from the site user (see HTTPS).
Streaming
A technology for delivering audio or video files so that they can be heard or seen whilst downloading, without having to wait for the complete file.
Style sheet
A template or a file which defines the layout of a document or a series of documents.
Telnet
Allows users remote access to computers, most often at libraries, universities,
and government agencies.The remote computer thinks you are using its own keyboard.
Templates
A ready-prepared document layout. Many word-processors have simple pre-formed letterheads, fax headers, memos, and invoices. To customise them for your own needs, you simply change the sample text.
Text-based Internet account
The user must use Unix commands to navigate the Internet.
Unix
A computer operating system which allows multiple clients to access one host at the same time.
URL
Uniform Resource Locater. This is the (rather clumsy) name for the address of any resource on the Internet. You type the URL into your browser, and are taken to that address.
Usenet newsgroups
More than 17,000 topic-oriented message bases that can be read and posted to. Also called newsgroups.
UUencode
A means of translating binary data so that it can be sent as an ASCII file across the Internet. (You need a decoder to convert it back into its native format at the other end.
Virus
A special type of program which is designed for malicious purposes. It spreads by attaching itself to other programs and then carrying out unwanted and often damaging operations.
Veronica
A computer program that helps users find what they are looking for on gopher servers around the world. Instead of looking through menus, Veronica allows users to enter keywords to locate the gopher site that holds the information they want.
Virtual
A computer-generated environment.
VRML
Virtual Reality Modelling Language. This is a file format which allows you to create 3D graphics for the Internet.
WAIS
Wide Area Information Servers These servers allow users to conduct full-text keyword searches in documents, databases, and libraries connected to the Internet. Pronounced ‘Ways’.
Wizard
A self-activating program that guides you through a simple set-up routine for a particular feature or application.
World Wide Web
A revolutionary browsing system that allows point-and-click navigation of the Internet. The Web is a spiderweb-like interconnection of millions of pieces of information located on computers around the world. Web documents use hypertext, which incorporates text and graphical links to other documents and files on Internet-connected computers.
XML
Extensible Markup Language – a new standard for marking up documents and data. It is based on SGML, but with a reduced feature set that is more appropriate for distribution via the Web. XML allows authors to create customised tags not available in HTML.
XSL
Extensible Style Language – a system for controlling the presentation of XML documents and structured data.
Zipping
The process of compressing a file so it takes up less space. There are two types of Zip files, normal (which require a program to extract them) and self-executing that open up automatically. PKZip and WinZip are popular zipping and unzipping programs.
© Roy Johnson 2009
Books on information technology
Books on the history of technology
1617. Scottish mathematician John Napier invents logarithms and constructs set of ‘rods’ or ‘bones’ for performing mechanical calculations.
1642. French mathematician and philosopher Blaise Pascal constructs and demonstrates a mechanical adding machine.
1666. German mathematician Gottfried Leibniz writes on the value of binary numbers in De Arte Combinatore.
1694. Leibniz constructs first mechanical device to successfully perform all four arithmetic functions (addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division).
1804. French engineer Joseph Jacquard develops punched card system for programming looms – weaving cloth to match a set of commands. Holes in the cards correspond to binary Open/Closed. This system of in-putting data into machines persists until 1960s
1823. English engineer Charles Babbage invents The Difference Engine – the first mechanical computer.
1834. Babbage designs and starts to build ‘Analytic Engine’ – Augusta Lovelace [Byron’s daughter] writes the first computer program.
1847. English mathematician George Boole publishes ‘Mathematical Analysis of Logic’ and uses the ideas of binary numbering to fuse logic with algebra.
1925. American engineer Vannevar Bush designs and builds the first multipurpose mechanical analogue computer.
1936. English mathematician Alan Turing puts together binary notation and Boolean logic to produce tests for mathematical probability. He proposes ‘Universal Turing Machine’ – a theoretical construct which contains all the logical and mathematical elements of what would be a modern analogue computer.
1940. American electrical engineer Claude Shannon uses Boolean logic to optimise relay-switching circuits in his MA thesis at MIT.
1945. Vannevar Bush publishes ‘As We May Think’ in Atlantic Monthly, outlining what we now call ‘hypertext’. Hungarian mathematician John van Neumann conceives the first stored computer program.
1948. First computer using stored program built at Manchester University. Turing’s proposal for a ‘Turing Computing Engine’.
1962. ‘Spacewar’ – first graphical computer game.
1968. Douglas Englebart demonstrates ‘windows’ and mouse in San Francisco.
1969. Myron Krueger develops first prototypes of virtual reality.
1974. Ted Nelson self-publishes Computer Lib and Dream Machines outlining his ideas on hypertext in paper form. Standard General Markup Language (SGML) first invented as a universal publishing language.
1975. Bill Gates and Paul Allen found Microsoft
1978. Philips and Sony introduce the laserdisk (analogue video)
1981. IBM introduces the first PC
1983. Microsoft launches its first version of Windows. Myron Krueger Artificial Reality
1984. Apple-Mac launched – DNS (Domain Naming System) introduced – Number of Internet hosts reaches 1,000
1985. Commodore Amiga launched (powerful graphics facility) – First Amstrad released in UK.
1987. Ted Nelson’s Literary Machines describes Project Xanadu – his scheme for electronic commerce and micro-payments. Hypercard (hypertext program) added to the Apple-Mac. Number of Internet hosts reaches 10,000
1989. Tim Berners-Lee develops Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) and the World Wide Web at CERN in Geneva. Howard Rheingold’s Tools for Thought. Number of Internet hosts reaches 100,000
1990. Archie (search tool) released by McGill University. Microsoft launches Windows 3.0
1991. CERN launches the World Wide Web. Howard Rheingold’s Virtual Reality – an early work on the sociology of computer users. Gopher (search tool) released by University of Minnesota.
1992. Veronica (search tool) released by University of Nevada. Number of Internet hosts reaches 1,000,000
1993. Marc Andreessen, NCSA, and University of Illinois develop Mosaic – the first graphical interface to the WWW. A recorded 341,634 per cent growth rate in Web traffic.
1994. First eCommerce (shopping malls and banks) arrive on the Web, and Web traffic second only to FTP-data transfers. Linux 1.0 open source operating system released.
1995. First search engines developed. Sun launches JAVA programming.
1996. Browser wars begin between Netscape and Microsoft. Web censorship in China, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Germany, and New Zealand.
1998. Extensible Markup Language (XML) introduced. Dotcom boom takes off. Estimated size of Web – 320 million pages.
2000. Dotcom crash begins (April). Size of Web estimated at one billion pages.
2003. Google claims a searchable database of 3.6 billion web pages.
2005. Google claims a searchable database of 8.2 billion web pages.
2006. Google claims a searchable database of 25 billion web pages.
2008. Google claims a searchable database of 1.0 trillion (1,000,000,000,000) web pages.
© Roy Johnson 2009
More on technology
More on digital media
More on online learning
More on computers
MLA stands for the Modern Language Association (of America). Its style manual has the full title MLA Style Manual and Guide to Scholarly Publishing. This presents a full set of protocols for the writing and presentation of documents and research in the humanities (literature, languages, media studies, and cultural studies). The guide and its standards are in general use throughout north America and Europe.
The guide does not cover the protocols used in disciplines such as history, sociology, philosophy, or sciences. These use either the Chicago Manual of Style or the Harvard System of referencing.
In the notes which follow, the terms citation (US usage) and referencing (UK usage) are used interchangeably.
Buy the book from Amazon UK
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The MLA Style Guide offers a complete set of standards showing you how to present academic writing and research. These standards are not questions of correct or incorrect writing: they are merely a coherent system which ensure consistency and rigour in the presentation of academic writing. The standards show you how to –
The MLA citation style uses a simple two-part system for citing sources. When you refer to or quote from a secondary source within your work, you provide a citation which points to an alphabetical list of Works Cited that appears at the end of the essay or term paper. The citation is an abbreviation given in brackets (Smith 128) and the full details of this source are listed at the end of your work. This example refers to page 128 in work written by someone called Smith.
This system of referencing identifies and credits the sources you have used in the essay. It allows someone reading the essay to identify and if necessary consult these secondary sources.
In MLA style, you place references to secondary sources in the essay to briefly identify them and enable readers to find them in the list of Works Cited. These references should be kept as brief and as clear as possible.
Give only the minimum information needed to identify a source. The author’s last name and a page reference are usually sufficient. Example – (Barber 45).
Place the reference as close as possible to its source, preferably where a pause would naturally occur, which is often at the end of a sentence.
Information in the brackets should not repeat information given in the text. If you include an author’s name in a sentence, you don’t need to repeat it in your reference.
The reference should precede the punctuation mark that concludes the sentence, clause, or phrase that contains the cited material.
Electronic and online sources are cited just like print resources in references. If an online source lacks page numbers, omit numbers from the bracketed references.
Examples
| Author’s name in text | Browning has expressed this concern (122-25). |
| Author’s name in reference | This concern has been expressed (Browning 122-25). |
| Multiple authors | This hypothesis has proved very persuasive (Bradley, Morgan, and Smith 46). |
| Two works cited | (Beetham 68; Covington 34) |
| Volumes and pages | Robinson 3: 14-19 |
| Corporate authors | (United Nations, Economic Report 51-56) |
| Online sources | Fetting, pars. 5-8) |
References cited in the text of an essay or a research paper must appear at the end of your work in a list of Works Cited. This is also known as a bibliography. This list provides the information necessary to identify and retrieve each source that has been used in your work.
Arrange the entries in alphabetical order of the authors’ last names (surnames), or by the title for any sources without authors.
Capitalize the first word and all other principal words of the titles and subtitles of cited works listed. Do not capitalize articles, prepositions, coordinating conjunctions, or the “to” in infinitives. (The Angel at the Grave)
The titles of books and journals should be shown in italics. Choose a font in which the italic style contrasts clearly with the regular style.
Shorten the publisher’s name. For example, omit articles, business abbreviations (Co., Inc.), and descriptive words (Press, Publisher).
When multiple publishers are listed, include all of them, placing a semicolon between each.
When more than one city is listed for the same publisher, use only the first city.
Use the conjunction ‘and’, not an ampersand [&], when listing multiple authors of a single work.
Do not use the abbreviations p. or pp. to designate page numbers.
Indentation: Align the first line of the entry flush with the left margin, and indent all subsequent lines (5 to 7 spaces) to form a ‘hanging indent’.
References to an entire book should include the following elements:
The basic format
Lastname, Firstname. Title of Book. Place of Publication: Publisher, Year of Publication. Medium of Publication.
One author
Nabokov, Vladimir. Strong Opinions. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1973. Print.
Another work, same author
—. Speak, Memory: An Autobiography Revisited. New York: Knopf, 1999. Print.
Two authors
Cresswell, Susan, and Charles Hoffman. Theaters of Experiment. London: Thames and Hudson, 2004. Print.
Three authors
Loewen, Thomas, Bentham Ginsberg, and Stuart Jacks. Analyzing Democratic Government. 3rd ed. New York: Norton, 1994. Print.
More than three authors
Sander, Jefferton et al. Beyond the Utility Principle. London: Heinemann, 1993. Print.
Editor (anthology or collection of essays)
Hillman, Charles, and Margery Hamilton, eds. Defining Milton’s Poetics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004. Print.
No author or editor
The Writers’ and Artists’ Yearbook. 2014 ed. London: A and C Black. 2014. Print
Jones, Josephine Teresa. “Within These Walls.” Feminism and its Relation to Architecture. Ed. Maureen Harrington. New York: Lexington Books, 2010. 109-24. Print.
Reprinted article
Huntford, Thomas. “The Misreading of Ken Kesey.” Review of Contemporary Fiction 4.3 (1985): 30-43. Rpt. in Contemporary Literary Criticism. Ed. Carleen Rilmont. Vol. 61. Detroit: Gale, 1990. 308-10. Print.
Articles or entries from reference books
If the article or entry is signed, put the author’s name first; if it is unsigned, give the title first. For well-known reference works, it is not necessary to include full publication information. Include only the title of the reference source, edition, and date of publication.
Dictionary entry
“Hostages.” Def. 1a. Shorter Oxford Dictionary. 1993. Print.
Encyclopedia entry
Merrington, Barbara. “Cooking with Gas.” The Oxford Encyclopedia of Food and Drink in America. Ed. Andrew F. Smith. Vol. 2. 2004. Print.
References to periodical articles must include the following elements:
Issue numbers should be stated as decimals to a given volume number. For instance, the number 25.4 refers to Volume 25, issue 4. When citing newspapers, it is important to specify the edition used (early ed. or late ed.) because different editions of a newspaper might contain different material.
Journal article, one author
Mentone-Cassidy, David. “Beyond Boundaries: Reaching Multi-Cultural Development.” Journal of Tourism Research 37.4 (2010): 141-63. Print.
Journal article, two authors
Langton, Jennifer, and Warren Furst. “Exploring Challenges and Opportunities Associated with Sharing Medical Resources.” International Journal of Hospital Management 29.2 (2010): 261-7. Print.
Magazine article
Keinster, Donald A. “Corporate Greed: The New Economics.” Vanity Fair 23 Nov. 2012: 84-91. Print.
Newspaper article, no author
“American Independence Day: The View from England.” The Guardian 31 May 2012, 16. Print.
Film
Manhattan. Dir. Woody Allen. 1979. Videocassette. MGM/UA Home Video, 1991.
Sound recording
Bob Dylan. Highway 61 Revisited. Columbia / Sony, 2004. CD.
Specific song
Bob Dylan. “Desolation Row.” Highway 61 Revisited. Columbia / Sony, 2004. CD.
CD-ROM
Citations should include the medium of the electronic publication (CD-ROM), the name of the vendor that made the material available on CD-ROM, and publications dates for the version used, if relevant.
“Matrimony.” Encyclopaedia Britannica. CD-ROM. London: Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc. Multimedia, 2014.
References to online sources, like those for printed sources, should provide the information that both identifies a source and allows it to be located and retrieved again.
All references should include the medium of publication (Web) and the date the content was viewed.
If the source is difficult to locate, you should list the complete Web address (URL) within angle brackets after the date. In many cases, it is also necessary to identify the Web site or the database that has made the material available on line.
There are currently no fixed standards governing the organization and presentation of online publications. Consequently, the information that is available can vary widely from one resource to another. In general, references to online works require more information than references to print sources.
For instance, the online encyclopaedia Wikipedia is being edited and updated all the time – so in some instances it might be necessary to record not only the date of an entry being visited, but even the time of day.
See sections 5.6.1-4 in the MLA Handbook for more complete information on creating references to online sources.
Web page
This example includes the optional URL. All other examples below use the shorter citation format.
Cornell University Library. ‘Introduction to Research’. Cornell University Library. Cornell University, 2009. Web. 19 June 2009 <http://www.library.cornell.edu/resrch/intro>.
Personal web site
If a work is untitled, you may use a genre label such as Home page, Introduction, etc.
Remington, Gregory. Home page. Web. 16 Nov. 2008.
Entry in an online encyclopedia
‘Epstein, Jacob’. Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Encyclopedia Britannica, 1999. Web. 27 Apr. 2009.
Article from a less familiar online reference book
Norton, John S. ‘European History and Islam’. Encyclopedia the Muslim World. Ed. Richard C. Martin. New York: Macmillan Reference-Thomson/Gale, 2004. Web. 4 July 2009.
Article in an online periodical
If pagination is unavailable or is not continuous, use n. pag. in place of the page numbers.
Chatterton, Heather. ‘The Epidemic in Saratoga’. Salon 19 Feb. 1999: n. pag. Web. 12 July 1999.
Article in a full-text journal accessed from a database
Valentino, Jose Antonio. ‘The Other Side of Facebook’. New Yorker 86.28 (2010): 54-63. Academic Search Premier. Web. 25 Jan. 2011.
Online book with print information
Henderson, Robert. South of Boston. 2nd ed. New York: Henry Holt, 1915. Google Books. Web. 30 June 2009.
The examples of MLA style and format listed on this page include many of the most common types of sources used in academic research. For additional examples and more detailed information about MLA citation style, refer to the following resources:
MLA Style Manual and Guide to Scholarly Publishing. 3rd ed. New York: Modern Language Association of America, 2008. Print. [Amazon US]
MLA Style Manual and Guide to Scholarly Publishing. 3rd ed. New York: Modern Language Association of America, 2008. Print. [Amazon UK]
MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers. 7th ed. New York: Modern Language Association of America, 2009. Print. [Amazon US]
MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers. 7th ed. New York: Modern Language Association of America, 2009. Print. [Amazon UK]
The Chicago Manual of Style: The Essential Guide for Writers, Editors and Publishers. 16th ed. Chicago: University of Chicago, 2010. Print. [Amazon US]
The Chicago Manual of Style: The Essential Guide for Writers, Editors and Publishers. 16th ed. Chicago: University of Chicago, 2010. Print. [Amazon UK]
© Roy Johnson 2014