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Graphology – how to understand it

September 7, 2009 by Roy Johnson

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Graphology – definition

Graphology is the study of the system of symbols which communicates language in written form.

In its more popular sense, it is the study of handwriting.

Examples

This is an example of a pictographic symbol.

Use

In the English language, writing starts on the left and moves to the right. It begins at the top of the page and moves downwards.

This might seem rather obvious, but writing in some other languages is arranged differently. Hebrew moves from right to left in rows, and Japanese from top to bottom in columns.

NB! Graffiti is a type of graphology, but if you confuse the two you’ll end up in trouble.

Graphology in context. ‘Grapheme’ is the term for the smallest unit of written communication. A letter of the alphabet or a punctuation mark is a grapheme. A scientific, mathematical, or any other kind of symbol is also a grapheme.

English is an ideographic language. This means that the writing system is based on a set of symbols. These have no intrinsic connection with what they are expressing.

Chinese on the other hand is known as a logographic or pictographic language. This is because the characters of that language were historically pictorial representations of the object being expressed.

Over the centuries these pictures have been stylised to the extent that they no longer resemble houses, people or trees. They now seem, to the uninitiated, just as arbitrary in their function as the English alphabet.

In linguistic study, graphology is a level of analysis along with phonology, vocabulary, grammar and semantics. It includes the study of layout, the use of logos and any other feature of graphical communication.

Children learn to form individual letters and later to produce joined-up writing. Some students find it difficult to make the transition from upper case printing to continuous script. This can be a significant impediment to their studies.

However, with literacy and maturity, we develop our own style of hand-writing. There is commonly a variation in the way we form our letters which is subject to context.

For instance, we may form a flamboyant ‘s’ at the end of a word, but a conservative version of that same grapheme if it occurs in an initial or medial position.

It is important to be able to distinguish between upper and lower case letters in order to punctuate. This is not possible with printing. Continuous script can also be produced much more rapidly.

Continuous script is easier to read than printing, because the eye is led by the connecting strokes between the characters. This is the same principle as the use of sefifed fonts in the layout of continuous writing.

Approaches to teaching hand-writing have changed over the years. It is interesting to note that each generation seems to have its own style of handwriting. Our parents and their contemporaries seem to produce the same script style, while their parents’ generation also have their own similarly distinct style.

Perhaps parallel with the phenomenon of speech style, handwriting styles are easier to categorise from a distance. Our children may see our contemporaries’ handwriting as belonging to an identifiable style, whilst we ourselves consider each person’s handwriting to be idiosyncratic.

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Homonyms – how to understand them

September 7, 2009 by Roy Johnson

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Homonyms – definition

Homonyms are words which are spelled the same, but which have different meanings.

Examples

bear – an animal
bear – to carry

bore – to drill a hole
bore – a tedious person

down – at a lower part
down – bird’s feathers

draft – preliminary sketch
draft – a money order

Use

The apparent similarities in these words sometimes causes confusion — particularly to non-native speakers.

Such words may or may not have the same etymological origins.

NB! Homonyms are a rich source of puns in English.

Strictly speaking, homonyms may be broken down into two different categories – homophones and homographs.

Homophones are words which are pronounced in the same way, but which have different spellings:

threw flung

through from end to end

bow incline from the waist

bough large tree-branch

Homographs are words which have the same spelling, but which are pronounced differently:

lead a heavy metal

lead to walk in front

wind air movement

wind to coil

One reason for these similarities is that spelling is only a rough approximation to pronunciation.

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How to improve your grammar

September 15, 2009 by Roy Johnson

basic guidelines for better writing

The quickest way to improve your grammar is to simplify your writing as much as possible.

Grammar is a combination of a number of different aspects of language

sentence construction
punctuation
spelling and vocabulary
agreement and syntax

The best approach is to tackle these issues one at a time.

Don’t try to improve your grammar by memorising rules – because there are many exceptions to most of them.

Sentences

In most writing, all normal sentences should begin with a capital letter and end with a full stop.

A normal sentence in English usually contains at least three elements: a subject, a verb, and an object.

Subject Verb Object

The cat eats the goldfish

My friend is tall

Some sheep are black

Subject	Verb	Object
The cat	eats	the goldfish
My friend	is	tall
Some sheep	are	black

If you are in any doubt at all, follow this pattern. Sentences which go out of grammatical control often lack one of these elements, or they have them placed in a different order.

Short, clear, and simple sentences are usually more effective than those which are long and complex. Avoid piling up clause upon clause.

In the majority of cases, you should aim for clarity and simplicity in your written style. If in doubt, remember this rule: Keep it short. Keep it simple.

You should avoid starting sentences with words such as ‘Again’, ‘Although’, ‘But’, ‘And’, ‘Also’, and ‘With’. These words normally belong in the ‘middle’ of a
sentence, not at its beginning. Sentences which start with a conjunction are often left incomplete.

Punctuate your work firmly, making a clear distinction in your writing between marks such as the comma, the semicolon, and the full stop.

Punctuation

The comma [,] is used to show a slight pause in a sentence.

It is also used to separate words, clauses, or phrases.

He will never do it, whatever he says.
She bought some butter, a pint of milk, and some jam.
Cars should turn left here, whilst vans should turn right.

It separates two items when the first is not closely associated with the second:

She is a famous singer, whilst her husband remains unknown.

A very common use for the comma is to separate the items in a list:

The box contained a book, some pencils, and a knife.

The semicolon [ ; ] marks a long pause in a sentence.

It is half way between a comma and a colon.

Semicolons are used between clauses which could stand alone, but which are closely related.

He ran with his shirt over his head; he had forgotten his umbrella once again.
She couldn’t dance in her favourite ballroom; it was being renovated.

Semicolons are also used to punctuate mixed lists in continuous prose writing:

Four objects lay on the desk: a large book; a spiral-bound notepad; a glass vase containing flowers; and a silver propelling pencil.

If you are in any doubt at all concerning the correct use of the semicolon – then avoid using it entirely.

It is perfectly possible to write clearly and effectively using only the
comma and the full stop.

The full stop [.] (sometimes called the period) is a punctuation mark indicating a strong pause.

It is used most commonly at the end of a complete sentence – like this one.

This is a short sentence. This is another.
It happened suddenly in 1996.
There are two reasons for this (in my opinion).

The only common exception to this rule occurs when the sentence is a question or an exclamation.

Is this question really necessary?
What a mess!

Notice that both of these punctuation marks include a full stop.

Spelling

If you are not sure about the correct spelling of a word, look it up in a good dictionary.

The best ways to improve your spelling are:

learn commonly mis-spelled words
learn the common rules of spelling
learn good spelling strategies

The most commonly mis-spelled words are probably there/their, its/it’s, to/too/two, and are/our.

This problem is caused because these words sound the same as each other. Here’s how to tell them apart.

There refers to a place, whereas their means belonging to them.

The table is over there, in the corner [place]
We are going to their house [belonging]

Its means belonging to, whereas It’s is a shortened form of It is.

The dog is in its basket [belonging]
It’s too late now [It is]

To means ‘towards something’, too means ‘very or in addition’, and two is the number 2.

We are going to the concert [towards]
It was too cold for swimming [very cold]
He ate two chocolate bars [number 2]

Agreement and Syntax

There must be grammatical logic or coherence in the links between parts of a sentence.

This is called case agreement.

If the subject of a sentence is singular, then the verb form must be singular as well.

The shop [singular] opens at nine o’clock.
On Thursdays the shops [plural] open late.

Sometimes confusion occurs because a statement begins in the singular but then drifts into the plural

Wrong
It can be argued that a person has the right to know when they are dying.

The easiest solution to this problem is to make the subject plural and its verb plural as well.

Correct
It can be argued that people have the right to know when they are dying.

Syntax is the grammatical arrangement of words in a sentence.

It concerns both word order and agreement in the relationship between words.

The following statements follow normal English word order:

The cat sat on the mat.
My old brown leather suitcase.

The following statements do not follow normal English word order:

The cat on the mat sat.
My brown leather old suitcase.

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How to use and in a sentence

January 31, 2013 by Roy Johnson

And – definition

Many people have difficulties knowing how to use and in a sentence. That’s possibly because it is such a common word.

The term ‘and’ is a conjunction – which is a word used to connect other words or clauses that are to be taken jointly.

The term ‘and’ occurs regularly in expressions such as –

bread and butter
fish and chips
two hundred and forty

Lists

The term ‘and’ is commonly used when describing a number of objects or listing characteristics.

She gave me an apple, an orange, and a banana.
There were three articles on the table: a hat, a scarf, and a penknife.
She is a tall, blonde, and attractive woman.

The use of the comma after the final item in a list is optional. However, using the final comma is never wrong, and it always helps to remove possible ambiguities. The following example is confusing.

The cafe offers a full range of snacks, meat and vegetable pies and sandwiches.

This suggests that the sandwiches contain meat and vegetables – which is probably not true. The statement should be punctuated as follows, keeping meat and vegetable pies as a distinct unit.

The cafe offers a full range of snacks, meat and vegetable pies, and sandwiches.

The final comma is often called the ‘serial comma’ or the Oxford comma. That’s because the Oxford University Press has traditionally insisted on its use as part of their famous house style.

Clauses

‘And’ is used to connect separate clauses that have a logical connection:

We crossed the road and then went into the park.
They have a large house and a cottage in the country.
I like apples and I’m very fond of bananas.

Incorrect use

When the separate clauses are not connected by logic, sequence, or topic, using ‘and’ to establish a connection is wrong.

Jane is twenty years old, blue-eyed and has red hair.
It was a rainy day, very windy and soon we felt tired.
Given training, workers can acquire the skills and interest in other jobs.

The ampersand

The ampersand (&) is a symbol that is often used as a substitute for the word ‘and’.

It often appears in company titles: Webster & Co – instead of writing Webster and Company.

It should not be used in any formal writing, such as academic essays, reports, or business letters.

The ampersand is actually a symbol that has evolved from the Latin word et, which means ‘and’. It combines the letters e and t into one shape.

Grammar rules

There is a traditional notion that it is incorrect to start a sentence with ‘and’. This is somewhere between a myth and a superstition. There are many cases where it might be appropriate.

However – unless you are experienced in writing, it is often dangerous to start a sentence with a conjunction (and, but, or, although). This can easily lead to the production of sentence fragments and grammatically incorrect expressions – such as this:

Although the weather was appalling, with arctic temperatures, a howling blizzard, and a solid sheet of sleet-covered ice over all the roads, which made it difficult to keep upright.

Actually three conjunctions (Although, with, and) combine in this example to kill off the creation of a proper subject and principal verb.

When ‘and’ is used as a conjunction to link together names, no comma is required.

London and Paris are major European cities.
Hemingway and Scott-Fitzgerald were once popular American writers.

The word ‘and’ is often used as a conjunction in expressions of emphasis.

“I’ve told you time and time again not to do that.” [repeatedly]
There are holidays and holidays. [different kinds]
This new exhibition should run and run. [last a long time]

Poetry

The technique of using ‘and’ to start a sentence is often used for poetic or dramatic effect. For instance, in John Betjeman’s poem, Christmas, four of the last stanzas begin with ‘And …’ to represent a child-like form of expression.

And London shops on Christmas Eve
Are strung with silver bells and flowers
As hurrying clerks the City leave
To pigeon-haunted classic towers,
And marbled clouds go scudding by
The many-steepled London sky.

And girls in slacks remember Dad,
And oafish louts remember Mum,
And sleepless children’s hearts are glad.
And Christmas-morning bells say ‘Come!’
Even to shining ones who dwell
Safe in the Dorchester Hotel.

The first part of the King James Bible begins with an account of the creation of the world which uses ‘and’ to generate a sense of magisterial force, logic, and inevitability.

In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth.

And the earth was without form, and void; and darkness was upon the face of the deep. And the Spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters.

And God said, Let there be light: and there was light.

And God saw the light, that it was good: and God divided the light from the darkness.

And God called the light Day, and the darkness he called Night. And the evening and the morning were the first day.

Puzzle

Can you add the necessary stress to make sense of the following statement?

“The sign is OK, but there should be more space between Marks and and and and and Spencer.”

If you can’t work that out, maybe this will help:

“The sign is OK, but there should be more space between Marks and &, and & and Spencer.”

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How to use quotation marks

July 13, 2011 by Roy Johnson

Quotation marks

Quotation marks or quote marks are the single or double raised commas used at the beginning and the end of a written quotation.

Single quote marks are shown ‘thus’.

Double quote marks are shown “thus”.

There are a number of instances where they are used.

The simplest case to remember is that double quote marks should be reserved to show speech

“Good gracious!” exclaimed the duchess.

The next most common use is when discussing somebody else’s writing:

In his recent account of the phone hacking scandal, Guardian journalist David Pallister mentions the ‘deep-seated culture of corruption’ shared by the police and the tabloid press.

The words quoted are put into single quote marks for two reasons:

to show them distinct from the author’s own discussion
to respect the original and avoid any charge of plagiarism

Remember that when a statement is ‘opened’ with a quote mark, it must be ‘closed’ at some point. It must not be left open.

There are very few universally agreed conventions on the use of quote marks. Practice varies from one house style manual to another. The following are some general suggestions, based on current usage.

Emphasis

In a detailled discussion, quote marks can be used as a form of emphasis, drawing attention to particular terms or expressions:

Internet users have developed their own specialist language or jargon. People ‘download’ software, use ‘file transfer protocols’, and run checks to detect ‘viruses’.

An acceptable alternative would be to display these terms in italics.

This distinction becomes important in academic writing where it is necessary to show a difference between the titles of articles and the journals or books in which they are published:

Higham, J.R., ‘Attitudes to Urban Delinquency’ in Solomons, David, Sociological Perspectives Today, London: Macmillan, 1998.

Quotes within quotes

It is sometimes necessary to include one quotation within another. In such cases, a distinction must be shown between the two items being quoted.

The Express reported that ‘Mrs Smith claimed she was “deeply shocked” by the incident’.

In this example, what Mrs Smith said is put in double quote marks (sometimes called ‘speech marks’) and the extract from the Express is shown in single quote marks.

It’s very important that the order and the logic of such sequences is maintained – because this can affect the integrity of what is being claimed.

Care should be taken with punctuation both within and around quotation marks.

The Express also pointed out that ‘At the meeting, Mrs Smith asked the minister “How could we as a family defend ourself against these smears?”‘

Titles

Quote marks are commonly used to indicate the titles of books, films, operas, paintings, and other well-known works of art. An alternative is to show these in italics.

Charles Dickens’s novel ‘Bleak House’

Francis Ford Coppola’s film ‘Apocalypse Now!’

Benjamin Britten’s opera The Turn of the Screw

Pablo Picasso’s painting Guernica

Quote marks can also be used to indicate the title of anything else which has a known existence, separate from the discussion:

photographs, exhibitions, television programmes, magazines, newspapers

Quote marks are not necessary when indicating the titles of organisations.

Senator Jackson yesterday reported to the Public Accounts Committee of the House of Representatives.

History

The quotation mark started its life as a raised comma. It was used at a time when typogrphical marks available to a printer were rather limited.

With the advent of the typewriter, a single and a double raised stroke were added to the marks available – and are still present on most keyboards.

But typographical purists have now invented what are called ‘smart quotes’. These are single and double raised commas which are automatically arranged and inverted at the start and the end of a quotation:

"Good gracious!" cried the duchess.

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Hyphens – how to use them correctly

September 7, 2009 by Roy Johnson

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Hyphens – definition

Hyphens are short horizontal marks – (shorter than the dash).

Hyphens are used to show a link between words.

Examples

mother-in-law
re-enter
matter-of-fact
author-critic
president-elect
co-operation

Use

Hyphens are used to join words when forming compounds.

They are also used after prefixes – especially where it is necessary to avoid an awkward or confusing sequence of letters (as in re-enter).

Notice the difference between a compound word and the same terms used separately:

a fifteenth-century manuscript
in the fifteenth century

NB! The hyphen is not the same thing as the longer dash ( — ) but this distinction is rarely made in the UK.

Hyphens should be used where it is necessary to avoid ambiguity:

two-year-old cats
two year-old cats

They should also be used to distinguish terms which are spelled identically, but which have different meanings:

reformation – change for the better
re-formation – to form again

recover – to regain control
re-cover – to cover again

resign – to stand down
re-sign – to sign again

Hyphens are used when new terms are formed from compounds, but they are dropped when the compound is accepted into common usage. (This process is usually more rapid in the USA than in Europe.)

bath-tub -> bathtub
book-shelf -> bookshelf
club-house -> clubhouse

This phenomenon is currently visible in computer technology, where all three forms of a term may co-exist:

Word processor
Word-processor
Wordprocessor

Remember that the hyphen is not the same thing as the longer dash. A distinction between the two is commonly made in the US, but not in the UK.

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Idioms – how to understand them

September 7, 2009 by Roy Johnson

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Idioms – definition

Idioms are fixed phrases which are only meaningful as a whole.

All languages contain idiomatic phrases.

Native speakers learn them and remember them as a complete item, rather than a collection of separate words.

Examples

IDIOM MEANING

a red herring a false trail

raining cats and dogs raining very hard

fly in the ointment spoiling the effect

Use

Idioms often break semantic conventions and grammatical logic – as in I’ll eat my hat [I’ll be amazed if …].

The object of the verb ‘to eat’ is conventionally something edible, but as part of this idiom it is something definitely inedible.

Non-native speakers find the idiomatic side of any language difficult to grasp.

Native speakers of a language acquire idioms from a very early stage in their linguistic development.

NB! You’re getting this advice straight from the horse’s mouth.

Idioms are generally impossible to translate between languages, although some families of languages use idioms based on identical ideas.

In French, for example, the idiomatic phrase ‘mon vieux’ is parallel in its meaning with the English ‘old chap’.

Idioms very often contain a metaphor, but not always. For example, ‘How do you do’ is an idiomatic greeting but it is not a metaphor.

Idioms are not always used or recognised by the whole of the language community. Sub-groups of speakers employ idioms peculiar to themselves.

Teenagers, occupational groups, leisure groups, and gender groups all employ idioms or special phrases. These will mean something within the context of the group and its communication.

Medicine I went to the GP for a check-up

Sport He was caught leg-before-wicket

Gender She was at her sister’s hen-party

Idiom also determines the way that certain combinations of words make meaningful statements, but not others.

For instance, we are ‘in a quandry’ but ‘at a loss’; we are ‘out of sorts’ but ‘in low spirits’; whereas the expressions ‘at a quandry’ or ‘in sorts’ would have no meaning in English.

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Jargon – how to understand it

September 7, 2009 by Roy Johnson

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Understanding jargon – definition

Jargon is ‘the technical vocabulary of a profession or group’.

The word is used as a form of criticism when such terms are used unnecessarily for communication outside a group.

Examples

legal probate, conveyance, intestate

computers download, Megabyte, serial port

engineering sprocket, crankshaft, centrifuge

gardening mulch, perennial, phlox

Use

Jargon can be a useful form of communication between members of the same group. It acts as a ‘shorthand’ which eliminates the need for lengthy explanations.

The most important thing about jargon is that it should only be used when communicating with people in the same group.

Some items of jargon eventually pass into common use because they seem to fill a need. Terms such as own-goal [from football] or repression [from psycho-analysis] were once jargon.

NB! There is often a very fine line between jargon [salary] and pretentious nonsense [personal remuneration package].

There is nothing wrong when jargon is used amongst members of the same group. It often acts as a sort of ‘shorthand’, which eliminates the need for lengthy explanations.

For instance, the foreman in a garage does not need to write on a mechanic’s worksheet:

‘Please regulate the device which provides a constant supply of petrol to the inlet manifold of the engine.’

He writes ‘Adjust the carbuettor’ — or even ‘Fix the carb’.

However, when you are communicating with people outside a group, you should use jargon as little as possible.

The term jargon in its most negative sense describes the use of technical or obscure terms when addressing a general audience.

For instance, what follows is a sentence in a letter from the Inland Revenue. It is addressed to ordinary members of the public.

The basis of assessment for Schedule D Case I and II, other than
commencement and cessation, is what is termed a previous year
basis.

This is an example of bad manners and poor communication. [Would you know what a ‘previous year basis’ means?]

Academic study has its own jargon too, depending upon the subject in question. Terms such as hegemony (political philosophy) discourse analysis (linguistics) and objective correlative (literary studies) would not be recognisable by an everyday reader, though they might be understood by someone studying the same subject.

Whatever the jargon of your own discipline, it should be used with precision, accuracy, and above all restraint.

Eric Partridge quotes the following example to illustrate the difference between a statement made in technical and non-technical form:

‘Chlorophyll makes food by photosynthesis.’

‘Green leaves build up food with the aid of light.’

Only use the specialised terms of your subject if you are quite sure of their meaning. Never use jargon to show off or ‘impress’ your reader. It is likely to create the opposite effect.

Do not use a jargon term where perfectly ordinary terms will be just as effective. There is not much virtue in using terms such as aerated beverages instead of fizzy drinks. These simply cause disruptions in
tone and create a weak style.

Here is an even more pretentious example, spotted recently:

“Enjoy your free sample of our moisturising cleansing bar”

…in other words – our soap.

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Language acquisition – understanding it

August 27, 2009 by Roy Johnson

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Language acquisition – definition

The term ‘language acquisition’ refers to the process by which humans begin to use language in speech.

In linguistic study it usually refers to child language development, but it can refer to adult acquisition of any language.

Examples

There are three main theories of language acquisition:

Behaviourist [Skinner] – language is learned by imitation

Cognitive [Piaget] – understanding leads to competence

Innate [Chomsky] – language automatically acquired

Use

Chomsky’s innateness theory has superseded the others and is now generally accepted as definitive.

Some knowledge of language acquisition theory is useful to anyone studying the English language, especially to schoolteachers who are teaching youngsters to read and write.

Speech therapists and audiologists also need to have a substantial knowledge of how language is acquired and developed.

NB! We acquire language just as we acquire the ability to walk upright. [That’s the current theory, anyway.]

In the study of language, speech is considered primary and as a system which is entirely separate from writing.

Children who are learning to write often confuse the two. They produce a written form of speech.

Maturity is demonstrated by the ability to use a literary style which is completely discrete and separate from speech.

Humans acquire speech due to their innate programming. Writing on the other hand is a skill which must be learnt in the same way as driving, sewing, or cooking.

Chomsky has argued that children do not learn language but acquire it by means of an innate facility. This means that they will be able to use language, just as they will walk on two legs or acquire a second set of teeth.

All children develop their ability to use language at approximately the same age and the same rate, despite any variations in nationality or circumstances.

In the process of child language development, the acquisition of phonology, semantics, and grammar progresses simultaneously until linguistic maturity is reached around the age of seven.

After this, an individual’s linguistic competence varies according to training, environment and perceived necessity.

Most people who have not studied child language acquisition would say that children acquire language by imitating what they hear. Even parents of young children are often of this opinion.

However, scientific research [and careful observation] shows that this is not true. The following is just some of the evidence in support of the innateness theory.

Young children acquire language universally at roughly the same rate, despite differences in their upbringing.

Children produce utterances they have never heard. For example, children often say ‘I goed’ instead of ‘I went’ or ‘I felled’ instead of ‘I fell’.

These mistakes (which amuse parents) are actually proof of the child’s programmed competence. In adding the sound ‘ed’ they are over-applying the rule for forming the past tense.

In other words, their pre-programmed facility is working. They actually have to learn those irregularities separately. The same process occurs in forming the plural of nouns.

The rule for this in English is to add ‘s’ or ‘es’ — as in houses, books, roads, toys, and most common nouns.

However, when it comes to terms such as ‘women’, ‘mice’, ‘sheep’, or ‘narcissus’, the child will over-apply the rule and say ‘mouses’, or ‘womens’ or ‘sheeps’. These mistakes are a positive sign that the innate faculty is operating.

The truth is that parents imitate children, rather than the other way round. In any supermarket or on any bus, we hear parents repeating a child’s baby-talk. If they are not doing this they are translating the baby talk. What is definitely noticeable by its absence is the child imitating adult speech.

Adults believe they are teaching children to speak, but research shows that children ignore these attempts and progress at their own pace. The process is useful however, as part of the desirable emotional bonding between adult and child.

Piaget believed that language competence went hand in hand with understanding the world around us. A child would only be able to speak meaningfully about concepts already internalised.

For example, a child would have to understand that a specified amount of water will reach vastly differing levels if poured into a narrow beaker or a wide bowl. Only then, would the child be able to verbalise anything concerning this phenomenon.

Piaget also divided the language learning process into three or four distinct stages. In the 1960s this lead to the practice of teaching foreign languages in primary schools to children of the ‘critical learning age’. This practice was quickly abandoned, because the children were very slow at picking up the foreign language compared with adults who were receiving the same method of tuition.

Skinner as a behaviourist believed that imitation was all and that children learnt language by imitation.

Whilst this is true for some factors of the acquisition process — such as learning the exceptions to rules of grammar – all the evidence points to the validity of the innateness theory.

Learning a foreign language is difficult unless the individual has been exposed to more than one language from infancy.

In adults, learning a foreign language means gaining a skill rather than drawing on the innate capacity, as in child language acquisition.

The most efficient way of acquiring a foreign language, therefore, is to be surrounded by native speakers of the language. This is the nearest to the natural process, but it can’t be the same because of the individual’s cognisance with his or her native tongue.

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Nouns – how to use them correctly

September 11, 2009 by Roy Johnson

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Nouns – definition

Nouns are the words we use for the names of objects, feelings, states of being, natural things, and groups.

Examples

objects	lamp, hat, gate, spoon, book
feelings	joy, sadness, fear, anger
states of being	confusion, agreement, war
natural things	thunder, electricity, gravity, speed
groups	herd, pack, catalogue, crowd

Use

We went to town and bought a lamp

The joy she felt was clear for all to see.

The trouble was caused by a power failure.

Thunder could be heard from a distance of three miles.

The cow with the curly horn was the most spectacular of the herd.

Nouns constitute much of the content of both speech and writing. They can usefully be categorised as follows:

Common nouns
Proper nouns
Abstract nouns

Common nouns. This is the term for objects such as ‘book’, ‘coat’, ‘window’, ‘apple’, ‘man’, ‘woman’.

Proper nouns. This is the term for names of people, places, days of the week, months of the year. Proper nouns are written with an initial capital letter:

John Smith	November
Tuesday	Buckingham Palace

Abstract nouns. This is the term for feelings such as ‘anger’, ‘joy’, ‘fear’, ‘sadness’, and for other intangible phenomena such as ‘beauty’, ‘philosophy’, ‘gravity’, ‘humour’.

Plurals of nouns are formed in a variety of ways in English.

Speech. Many nouns are made plural by the addition of a voiced /z/ or voiceless /s/ sibilant or ‘s’ sound as in tins /z/ mats /s/ sweets /s/ cows /z/

Writing. In writing the examples above would be pluralised by the simple addition of the letter ‘s’.

Other nouns require an extra syllable to form a plural, according to their use in speech or writing.

Speech. The plural of the terms ‘house’, ‘ostrich’, and ‘entrance’ are formed as follows:

hou/z/e/z/

ostrich/e/z/

entrance/z/

Writing. The written form of these plurals is constructed by adding the letter ‘s’ — except in the case of ‘ostrich’ where ‘e’ and ‘s’ are added.

In these cases, the written version is echoing the spoken word where, for ease of articulation, a vowel sound is added when forming the plural.

Irregular plurals. English has many words which are borrowings from other languages. The result of this is a number of irregular plurals:

SINGULAR	PLURAL
analysis	analyses
crisis	crises
appendix	appendices
narcissus	narcissi
amoeba	amoebae

English also has compounds such as the following, called ‘plurals in the first element’:

mothers-in-law	[not mother-in-laws]
spoonsful	[not spoonfuls]
passers-by	[not passer-byes]
courts-martial	[not court-martials]

However, there are also examples of the converse. That is, where the plural is formed in the final element in terms such as:

girlfriends

grownups

takeoffs

Archaic plurals. Some plurals are formed by the addition of ‘en’, because of the origin of the word in Old English:

children

oxen

brethren

The term ‘chicken’ is the archaic plural of the word ‘chick’. Over the centuries however, it has come to stand for the singular. The plural is now formed by the addition of a final ‘s’ in ‘chickens’.

Collective nouns. This is the term for one single term which refers to a group of items. Many English collective nouns refer to animals. For example, flock (sheep), brace (game-birds), set (badgers), pride (lions).

Terms such as ‘den’ (of robbers) ‘team’ (of players) ‘queue’ (of people) ‘party’ (of delegates) are also collective nouns.

Participles as nouns. Some nouns are formed from verb participles. For example, it is common to refer to ‘the cleaning’ which may be done weekly.

Film-makers used this form in producing The Shining, and houses are protected by various kinds of ‘cladding’.

Noun-phrases. These are utterances which may act as subject, object or predicate in a sentence. In other words they function exactly as a single noun, but they comprise more than one word.

Here are some examples, based on one common, single noun (book)

the book
the interesting book
the book on the shelf
the book which my friend gave me

All of these noun phrases could be used to start or to finish a sentence:

The book on the shelf is the one I was looking for in the first place.

John gave me the book on the shelf.

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