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The Unwritten Rules of PhD Research

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complete guide to undertaking a PhD – and beyond

This is a guide to the whole process of postgraduate research – from the point of selecting a topic and a supervisor, through to surviving your viva and starting to apply for jobs. The claim of authors Gordon Rugg and Marian Petre is that their advice includes all the things nobody ever tells you – either because they think you already know, or they have passed through the system and forgotten that they themselves once didn’t know. For instance, they start off with topics such as the need for tact, patience, and restraint: after all, you’re not the first person to undertake research.

The Unwritten Rules of PhD ResearchThis is followed by what they call knowing how to have ‘the right cup of coffee’ – that is, getting the best sources of advice. They even include things as obvious but often disastrously forgotten as the need to back up your work at every stage. Their urgings are all very sound. Get to know all stages of The System and its procedures; learn how to fill in forms (first in pencil, on a photocopy); understand the role of a supervisor, and create the groundwork for establishing a good working relationship.

They take a realistic attitude to the current tenor of academic life in the UK. Yes, everything has been driven by the Research Assessment Exercise, but the PhD research project is still worth doing as an intellectual exercise in its own right.

They cover all the reading and writing skills you will need – and the general advice is that you must learn to be professionally rigorous. There’s also a section by section critique of a typical thesis, showing why it’s important that you get the smallest details right.

For the ambitious who can’t wait to further their careers by getting into print, there is a section on how to write a journal article, plus how to increase your chances of getting it accepted.

For a piece of work as long as a thesis, most of which will be produced by people who have never written such a long piece of work before (and probably never will again) I was glad to see that they tackled the issues of creating structure and generating the appropriate style.

They go into style and writing skills in relentless detail, quoting plenty of good and bad examples so that you are left in no doubt about what’s required. Then for good measure they offer guidance on delivering presentations and speaking at conferences.

There’s very good chapter on dealing with the nerve-racking finale to all this – the viva. For anyone who has not yet reached this point, it’s worth buying the book for this chapter alone.

And they don’t end there. It’s assumed that your research and your PhD are leading towards some form of employment – either to do more research or to take up a teaching appointment. They provide excellent guidance on taking both these routes.

If you are contemplating a PhD, buy the book and read it straight through to get the larger picture; then re-read each section in greater detail as you tackle each stage of your work.

I did the basic research for my PhD in about twelve months, then spent two years writing up the results – and producing possibly too much. It succeeded, but I think I might have made a better job of it if I had read a book like this first. But they didn’t exist in those days.

© Roy Johnson 2010

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Gordon Rugg and Marian Petre, The Unwritten Rules of PhD Research, Maidenhead: Open University Press, 2nd edition 2010, pp.320, ISBN: 0335237029

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Using Statistics

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gathering, analysing, and presenting data

Many subjects such as psychology and biology have a ‘hidden’ requirement of using statistics which gives many students problems when they realise that they’ve got to tackle them as part of the course. As Gordon Rugg observes in this guide for beginners: ” Many people emerge from their first encounter with stats feeling distinctly bruised, and with a mental image of stats as a bizarre set of meaningless rituals that you have to follow because you’re told to.”

Using StatisticsWhat he’s offering is a sympathetic guide to the basic principles without terrorizing readers with a lot of abstract mathematics and complex equations. It’s intended to provide an overview of statistics, and to explain how statistics fit into the big picture of research, with particular attention to using statistics as a coherent part of research design. He brings off this intention very well by using a simple but clever device: he makes his explanations amusing, with concrete examples all the way.

So concepts such as mean, average, and standard deviation are explained using problems from everyday life, and he also explains why some of the basic statistical methods are necessary for the sake of scientific accuracy. It’s not enough to say that 50% of a sample was positive if you’ve only chosen two or three items to test, for instance.

He goes into measurement theory, showing the variety of ways in which things can be enumerated or calibrated – which is particularly useful for people designing surveys and questionnaires.

He also explains the difference between reliability and validity in statistics, using the example of ‘descriptions of Father Christmas’. These would be very reliable, because everyone will describe him in the same way; but they have zero validity, because he doesn’t actually exist.

There’s an explanation of how data can best be presented using graphs, pie-charts, and scatter diagrams – as well as the ways in which they are commonly misused.

The latter parts of the book, which deal with the presentation of knowledge – patterns, categorization, and probability theory – come almost into the realms of philosophy.

So – the first part of the book deals with measuring and presenting data accurately. This then leads to the more interesting issues of interpretation and knowing what questions can be legitimately asked when trying to assess the significance of any findings – what he calls the ‘So what?’ question.

For this, statistical tests are required. He talks you through how to choose the right type and only goes into maths and calculations when absolutely necessary. All of this is done humanely, by making his primary illustrative examples such things as a game of tiddlywinks and the height at which gorillas sleep in trees.

This is followed by even more improbable examples of limpet racing to illustrate what’s called ‘Parametric Statistics’, and he ends with some useful comments on the latest statistical software which is used for neural networks, data mining, and genetic algorithms.

I’m rather glad that my subject (literary studies) has not yet been invaded by ‘scientific’ theoretical approaches which involve statistics, but for anybody who can’t avoid the subject, this is a very enjoyable introduction.

© Roy Johnson 2007

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Gordon Rugg, Using Statistics: a gentle introduction, Open University Press: Maidenhead, 2007, pp.137, ISBN: 0335222188

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Writing a Research Proposal

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tutorial, instructions, and a sample research brief

What is a research proposal?

At post-graduate level of education (after a first degree) it is quite common for research tasks to be part of the curriculum. Don’t worry – you are not expected to unearth some hitherto unknown secret of the universe. The research skills you will learn are simply part of the intellectual equipment required by your subject of study.

The research itself may be preceded by the exercise of writing a proposal for the task you are going to undertake. This research proposal is rather like an extended written preparation for the work you are going to do. Its purpose is to show that you can construct a coherent plan which demonstrates that you are aware of what is required.

Your tutor or supervisor will see from your research proposal that you have prepared efficiently for a long piece of work, and that you are conscious of the disciplines required by your subject. It is also important that what you are proposing is capable of being successfully completed in the time and the circumstances at your disposal.

Here are the steps that should be followed in producing a good, sound research proposal – though some of the smaller details will vary according to the subject being studied.

1. Study the research brief

A research brief is the written instructions for the task you have been asked to complete or a description of the project you have been invited to propose. The number of words will be specified. The issues which you are required to discuss or include will be outlined, and any limitations on the scope of the exercise might be flagged up.

Copy out this research brief and its instructions completely in your preparatory notes. Write out the instruction accurately and in detail to show that you have read all the requirements – some of which it might be easy to miss in a casual reading.

The research brief and instructions will not be included in your final research proposal, but they are an integral part of the materials required to produce it.

2. Identify the formal structure of the proposal

You should demonstrate a clear understanding of the structure required in your research proposal. This might be specified by the department in which you are studying, it might be a matter of tradition in your subject, or you might need to create your own structure.

Look at examples of previous proposals that have been successful. Make a note of the principal headings and sub-headings that have been used. Your own headings should be based on and should refer to everything that has been asked for. Construct the outline headings to start planning your proposal.

3. Choose suitable topic(s) for research

Choose a research topic in which you are genuinely interested, otherwise the project work might become tedious. Make sure the topic of the proposal is something that you can actually accomplish. Do not be over-ambitious. The purpose of the research is a check that you can identify an issue or a hypothesis, then test its validity. You are not being asked to be innovative at this level.

Think ahead to the practical problems you might face in gathering your data. Choose a topic that can be modified slightly in case problems arise.

4. Follow academic conventions

Make sure you know the academic conventions of presentation for the subject. Some popular style guides include the Harvard, the Chicago, the PMLA, and the MHRA conventions.

These style guides on academic referencing and citation are designed to show that you can make accurate and consistent use of other people’s work in your own writing. They will also help you to avoid any suggestion of plagiarism.

Follow the conventions required by the system down to the smallest detail. It is easy to lose marks for not following the conventions, because mistakes are easy for tutors and examiners to spot.

5. Organise your materials

Create a separate folder for each part of your written materials and your data. This applies to both paper and digital files. Keep clearly labelled storage systems for your written arguments, data, bibliography, questionnaires, tables, and data analysis. Don’t keep everything in one long document or one folder.

Long pieces of written work deserve to be handled with respect and good organisation. You will also be able to find your work and control it if it’s well organised.

6. Use cloud storage

Create an account with iCloud or Dropbox or Microsoft Drive and store your materials in the cloud. This will reproduce the system of separate folders that exist on your own computer. Dropbox (and the others) will synchronise the work on your computer with copies stored in the cloud, keeping both up to date as you work on them. The copies are stored safely on remote servers. They can be accessed from any computer – including mobile devices. This means you can access your up-to-date documents wherever you happen to be. This system also keeps your materials safe in the event of computer breakdowns.

Copies stored in the cloud are normally password-protected and available only to the account owner (you). However, it is also possible to have shared folders, so if you happen to be working on a joint project, access can be granted to co-workers.

7. Design an outline plan

Use your list of headings (3) to create an outline plan of the research proposal. The proposal does not need to have any substantial content yet, but the outline is a reminder of all the topics you should keep in mind. The order of the items in the plan can be changed later if necessary. You can also work on the generation of your written proposal in any order you wish. It does not have to be composed in the same order as the research will be conducted.

You might find it useful to translate your proposal into some sort of visual flow chart or diagram of events. This will help you to conceptualise the work you are proposing, and it can make clear your intentions for the people who will be assessing your proposal.

Research Proposal

a workflow diagram

8. List background reading

At all times, keep a full bibliographic record of any materials you consult whilst designing your proposal. The bibliography will include text books, articles, journals, web sites, and other sources from which you have quoted or which you have consulted during the composition of your proposal. You should include page numbers for easier retrieval and checking of quotations at a later date. Follow the conventions of bibliographic presentation specified by the style guide you are using (4).

9. Acknowledge the ethics of research

Many types of research now require a formal recognition of the ethical issues which might be involved. This applies to such things as conducting surveys amongst the public; using other people’s data; asking people to complete questionnaires; observing people’s behaviour; or taking samples of public attitudes on controversial topics.

You need to show that you are aware of the possible ethical implications of your research and its methodology. You will also need to indicate what practical steps you intend to take.
Examples of any questionnaires or surveys should be included in your final research proposal submission. A successful proposal might also include a contract of agreement or consent to be used with participants.

10. Make a timetable

Work backwards from the submission deadline. Make a calendar that shows the exact number of days available to you. Allocate time in proportion to the task, and make sure you include all stages of composition – from data gathering and background reading, to writing, editing, and checking the finished proposal.

Sample research proposal brief

Extended research proposal and rationale

Submission date: May 9th, 2014.

Word limit: 4,000 words

Decide on a research question related to Linguistics, Applied Linguistics or Language Teaching, which you would like to explore in your MA dissertation. Bear in mind that the research project needs to be small-scale and realistic to complete within the 3-month dissertation period.

Devise research questions/hypotheses and a research methodology that will allow you to gather data needed to answer your research question/test your hypotheses.

Design and produce appropriate research instruments and data collection procedures.

Write up the research proposal as a short paper with an emphasis on:

  • justification/motivation for your choice of research area
  • research context: understanding of work in the area
  • explanation of the research questions/hypotheses
  • justification for the methodology used
  • reliability and validity issues
  • research ethics
  • timescale for the research
  • awareness of possible limitations of the research

You should make reference to research methodology literature in order to justify your choices throughout the paper. The paper will serve as the basis for a research proposal for the MA dissertation to be undertaken in Semester 3.

Please include a copy of your research instruments in an appendix to your proposal.

© Roy Johnson 2014

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Writing your doctoral dissertation

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guide to advanced academic study and writing skills

Do people at doctoral dissertation level need writing guides? Well yes, they do, because a composition of this scope usually presents difficulties most of us have never come across before. After all, we don’t produce 50,000 word research projects just for fun, do we? Rita Brause starts by explaining the differences between a dissertation and a long term paper [UK=coursework essay]. These are important distinctions which are often learned by most students only at the expense of much anguish and re-writing.

Doctoral Dissertation She also stresses just how much anybody will learn during the process of writing a dissertation, which is the sort of insight unlikely to be available to someone approaching this experience for the first time. She analyses practical examples to show the important structural elements of a dissertation, and then goes on to explain the stages in the doctoral process – including making an application, learning the language of institutions, and fulfilling all their technical requirements. These elements need to be taken into account even before the writing begins, and she justifies the attention she gives to them quite convincingly on the grounds that many students who fail to complete their research do so because they had no idea what to expect when they started out.

It is the US system she is describing, which contains the element of working to a committee that is not found in the UK system, but when it comes to the business of writing, all the issues of preparation, organisation, and intellectual stamina are identical.

The heart of the book comes three-quarters way through, where she describes in detail the process of locating and defining a topic, as well as the type of questions you should ask in order to ‘refine’ a topic or turn an observation into a proposal. These are the stages which in my experience of post-graduate teaching cause students most problems. A research proposal which has not been clearly defined is like an intellectual quagmire. No matter how much new material is generated, the student will be sucked ever deeper into the morass by competing priorities and a lack of focus.

There are three short bibliographies on dissertations, the academic world, and research methodology; but what I think might appeal most of all to the intended audience of this writing guide is an interesting collection of tips (some quite daunting) from former doctoral candidates. There’s often nothing quite so convincing as the reports of first-hand experience.

© Roy Johnson 2005

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Rita S. Brause, Writing your Doctoral Dissertation: Invisible Rules for Success, London: Falmer Press, 2000, pp.163, ISBN: 0750707445

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