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A plan for writing essays

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1. Approach
Essays can be composed using a number of different writing strategies. Some people write directly from rough notes, whilst others prefer a ‘discovery’ method. If you are in any doubt at all, you should plan your work. The task of writing is usually much easier if you create an outline structure for your arguments, with brief details of the topics to be covered. The stages of this process are as follows.

2. Analyse the question
Make sure that you understand what an essay question is asking for. What is it giving you the chance to write about? What is its central issue? Note carefully any of its key terms and any instructions. Think about the question, turning it over in your mind. Discuss it if possible with your fellow students. If you are in any doubt, ask your tutor to explain what is required.

3. Generate ideas
Take a sheet of paper and make a brief note of any topics that might be used for an answer. These can be ideas, observations, or information from your study materials. These topics will be used to make a plan. Don’t copy out chunks of texts. Use brief notes or even single word triggers. Write down anything you think of at this stage. Your objective is to generate ideas, to assemble a stock of potential material from which you will pick out the most appropriate items.

4. Choose topics
Take another sheet of paper. Extract from your list all those topics and points of argument which are of greatest relevance to the question and its central issue. You are simply picking out the best material. If it is possible, put your ideas in any logical groups or categories. If anything strikes you as irrelevant to the subject in question, throw it out.

5. Reading and research
Whilst writing essays, you will probably be engaged in reading or research in the subject. This will help you to provide information for an answer. Your reading will be more carefully directed if you have narrowed down the topics you need to cover in your response to a question. This is why it is important to think about the issues involved as a form of preliminary work on the question.

6. Selection
Select items on the strength of their relevance to the question. This may not be an easy judgement to make. Keep asking yourself – “Is this directly related to the subject? Will it answer the question?” You might have three categories of selection. One is a definite “Yes – this relevant”. The second could be like a ‘Pending’ tray containing items which might be used later. The third is a dustbin into which the completely unrelated material is thrown for good.

7. Create order
Take yet another sheet of paper. Try to arrange your chosen topics and material in some sort of order. At this stage you should be starting to formulate your basic response to the question. Organise the points so that they form a persuasive and coherent pattern or argument. Some subjects will lend themselves more easily to the creation of this order than others. In some, such as appreciation of the arts, there may be no set pattern and one must be created. In some of the sciences, there may be a standard form of report which must be followed. This is probably the hardest part of essay planning at a conceptual level.

8. Arrange evidence
Most of the major points in your argument will need to be supported by evidence. One purpose of the essay task is to show that you have read widely in your subject and considered the opinions of others. In some subjects you may actually need proof to support your arguments. During the process of study you have probably been assembling notes and references for just such a purpose. If not, this is the time to do so. On another sheet of paper you might compile a list of brief quotations from other sources (don’t forget the page references) which will be offered as your evidence.

9. Material
Don’t worry too much if you have surplus evidence after completing this stage. This is perfectly normal. You can pick out the best from what is available. If on the other hand you don’t have enough, you should do more background reading or engage with the subject once again. Take some more notes or generate new ideas as material to work on.

10. Make changes
Whilst you have been engaged in the first stages of planning, new ideas may have come to mind. Alternate sources of evidence may have occurred to you, or the line of your argument may have shifted somewhat. Be prepared at this stage to rearrange your plan so that it incorporates any new materials. Try out different arrangements of your topics until they form the most convincing and logical sequence.

11. Make plan
Most essay plans can be summarised in this form:

  • Introduction
  • Arguments
  • Conclusion

State your case as briefly and as directly as possible. Next, present your arguments and your evidence in the body of the essay, explaining their relevance to the original question. Finally, draw together the points of your arguments and try to lift them to a higher level in your conclusion. Your final plan may be something like a list of half a dozen to ten major points of argument. Each of these, together with their supporting evidence, will be expanded to a paragraph of something around 100-200 words. This is the heart of essay planning.

12. First draft
You are now ready to produce the first draft of the essay. Don’t imagine that you are supposed to produce an accomplished piece of writing at one sitting. These will be your first thoughts and your initial attempts at answering the question. Later drafts can be improved by re-writing. You will be matching your evidence to what is required. You do not necessarily need to start at the introduction and work systematically towards your conclusion: it may be better to start working where you feel most comfortable.

13. Relevance
At all stages of essay writing, you should keep the question in mind. Keep asking yourself “Is this evidence directly relevant to the topic I have been asked to discuss?” If necessary, be prepared to scrap your first attempts and formulate new arguments. This may seem painful, but it will be much easier than scrapping finished essays.

14. Paragraphs
A good tip on relevance is to check that the opening statement of each major paragraph is directly related to the question. The first sentence (which is sometimes called the topic sentence’) should be a direct response to what you have been asked. It might be an example to illustrate your answer, or a major point of your argument on the subject in question. If it is not, something may be wrong.

15. Revising the draft
Your first draft is the basic material from which you will be building the finished product. Be prepared to re-write it in whatever way is necessary. If it is too short, generate more arguments. If it is too long, cut out the less relevant parts. If it doesn’t seem convincing, consider putting its arguments in a different order. You might begin to tidy up the grammar and style at this stage.

16. Multiple drafts
The number of drafts you make will depend upon the time you have available (and possibly the importance of the piece of work). It is very useful to take your work through a number of drafts, re-writing where necessary. In the majority of cases, this will improve the quality of what you produce.

17. Editing
Before actually submitting the piece of work, you should take it through at least one stage of rigorous presentation of your work will enhance its effectiveness. Create a neat, legible text; double-space your paragraphs and leave wide margins to ‘frame’ what you have written. Take pride in the work you produce. Keep essays in a loose-leaf folder or a document wallet. Alternatively, use one of the plastic envelopes which are now increasingly popular. Remember that your essays will be of critical importance during the period of revising for examinations.

© Roy Johnson 2003

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Grades in essay results

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1. There are two systems of essay grades commonly used in further and higher education [in the UK]. One is the numerical percentages system of grades (from 0 up to 100) and the other is the alphabetical letter system (from A to E, F, and G).

2. Older, traditional universities sometimes employ a similar system, but using the initial letters of the Greek alphabet – Alpha, Beta, Gamma, and Delta.

3. Those using the English and Greek letter system often employ the further refinement of a plus and minus system to provide a greater degree of discrimination. In this system, the grades Beta-plus (B+) and Alpha-minus (A-) represent incremental grades between Beta and Alpha.

4. Although these systems are in widespread use, there might be minor local variations. An example of the other common [sixteen-point] marking scheme is given below. See also the section on assessment.

5. In numerical percentages especially, there is sometimes a sense of fuzziness about the distinctions between one grade and the next. It is also quite common not to award percentages over eighty.

6. The percentage and letter grades, corresponding to the standard university degree classification, are as follows:

CLASS PERCENT LETTER
First class (I) 70% or over A
Upper second (II.i) 60-69% B
Lower second (II.ii) 50-59% C
Third class (III) 40-49% D
Pass/Fail 34-39% E
Fail Below 34% F

7. For most courses, the boundary between a pass and a fail will be forty percent. Below this there can be different levels of failure. A tutor might award thirty-five to record a near miss. This could permit a student to re-submit a piece of work or maybe to re-sit an examination. The band of marks between thirty and forty is sometimes called a ‘compensatory pass’.

8. A mark as low as twenty-five suggests a basic misunderstanding or a serious lack of achievement. Below this, there are further possible degrees of failure. These marks may sometimes be designated as E, F, and G in the letter grading system – though some institutions stop registering grades at D.

9. Low marks for individual pieces of work might nevertheless be significant depending on the system for calculating an overall course grade. One single low essay grade on a course might bring down an average score – or it might be disregarded as an aberration if all other grades were high.

10. Above forty percent there is a band of ten marks which designate a ‘bare pass’. The question has been considered, but that is all. The answer might be weak and hesitant, either in the arrangement of its ideas or in the quality of its arguments and evidence. The manner of expression might also be shaky. This band corresponds to the D grade in the letter system or a third (III) or pass mark in the traditional university system.

11. Work which scrapes through the pass mark will usually suffer from a number of weaknesses. The answers might have been very short, the focus of the argument might have wandered on and off the required subject. It might lack coherence and structure, and the expression may have been hesitant or clumsy. In work of this calibre there is often no indication that the student knows which is the more and which the less relevant part of the argument.

12. The higher the grade awarded to an essay, the greater must be the proportion of material it contains which is directly related to the question. Conversely, there should be as little as possible which is not relevant. The success of the work, in almost all cases, is directly related to the ability to focus single-mindedly on the question topic(s).

13. Next comes the band between fifty and sixty percent. Grades at this level represent a greater degree of competence, both in terms of handling the issues and the manner in which they are expressed. There may be a greater degree of fluency in the written style, and the generation of ideas. More supporting evidence may have been offered, or examples discussed. However, there will still be weak patches, and possibly mistakes or omissions which dilute the overall effect of the essay. This band corresponds to the C grade or the lower second (II.ii) in the other grading systems.

14. Grades between fifty and sixty are perfectly respectable. They represent rising degrees of competence in handling the issues raised by the question. These grades reflect an average ability in the subject at this level – yet they often seem to cause more problems than any other grades. Many students imagine that such results represent a humiliating failure to succeed, when in fact they demonstrate competence and success – albeit at a moderate level.

15. In the next band, between sixty and seventy, there will be a rise in the quality of written expression, argument and evidence. There will also be far less extraneous material and usually a greater degree of self-confidence in the writing. The essay will demonstrate an ability to focus attention on the question. This is a standard which shows a well informed and firm grasp of the issues involved, and the intellectual capability to deal with them. This band corresponds to the B grade or the upper second (II.i) in the other systems.

16. Students often want to know (quite rightly) what constitutes the difference in quality between two results, one of which might score 59 and the other 62 percent. This is a gap of only three marks, but enough to make the distinction between a lower and upper second level pass. The answer is that the better work probably has a stronger sense of focus and structure, presents more concrete evidence, or makes a closer engagement with the details of the question.

17. The regions beyond seventy or seventy-five are normally reserved for work which is clearly outstanding in its quality, intellectual breadth, and fluency of articulation. Answers pitched at this level are likely to be very confidently presented, and they will demonstrate a breadth of knowledge and reading in the subject which make it especially praiseworthy. Marks in this band are often awarded to work which not only answers the question but say something insightful or original about it as well. This band corresponds to the A grade or first class award (I) in the other systems.

18. Keep in mind however that essay questions do not require you to be dazzlingly original. Your tutors will be perfectly happy to award good grades to work which shows that you have studied the course material and answered the question.

19. Most institutions use similar standards of assessment, even though many of them do not make the criteria explicit. Here is one which does.

SIXTEEN-POINT MARKING SCHEME
Grade Degree     Guide to interpretation
90/85 1 Outstanding work
78 1 Work of exceptional merit, in terms of coherence, clarity of presentation, comprehensive coverage and critical analytic discourse.
73 1 Excellent command of relevant material, clearly expressed, with a high level of perception and critical insight.
68/63 2.i Based on wide reading and critical analysis of material. Work is logically structured, is expressed clearly, offers broad coverage of the topic, and is accurate in points of detail.
58/53 2.ii Work is satisfactory in structure and expression, and is based on a fair range of reading. The student has thought through the subject, tackled most relevant issues with reasonable accuracy, and has attained an acceptable level of understanding.
48 3 Work has some merits, but is deficient in one or more significant respects. For example, structure and expression are poor; certain issues are misunderstood; factual errors creep in; insufficient reading; lack of evidence of independent thought.
43 Pass Work is deficient in several respects or badly deficient in one of them, but nontheless has some recognisable merit.
33 Fail Some awareness of the dimensions of the question/issue, but the communication of knowledge and understanding is limited and/or error-prone. Alternatively, the communication of knowledge and understanding is of a related subject, which represents a misreading or misunderstanding of the question/issue as set.
25 Fail Sufficient knowledge to indicate a minimal level of understanding, but knowledge based unacceptably weak.
15 Fail No coherent response to the question/issue, but a few relevant points made.
8 Fail Virtually no relevant response to the question or issue.
0 Fail No relevant response to the question or issue.

© Roy Johnson 2003

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How to Write Critical Essays

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advice on writing academic essays – from start to finish

David Pirie’s sub-title here is ‘a guide for students of literature’ – but his advice will be useful for anybody in the arts or humanities. What he offers is to talk you through the process, from understanding the question to producing and submitting the final draft. He adopts a very sensible approach, and the advice he offers is timeless. The essay as an academic exercise has endured because it is both a form of intellectual self-discovery and a flexible yet taxing means of assessment. He starts with analysing and understanding questions, then organising the ‘research’ for your answer – including detailed advice on taking notes. All this quickly becomes an introduction to literary criticism.

How to Write Critical EssaysHis chapter on devising a suitable structure for an essay explores the standard approaches to this task. These are discussing the arguments for and against a proposition; following the chronological order of events; and constructing a logical sequence of topics. I think a few more concrete examples would have been helpful here. The chapter on how to make a detailed case is more useful, precisely because he examines a series of concrete examples, showing how to quote and examine selected passages. The same is true of his chapter on style, where he illustrates his warnings against repetition, vagueness, generalisation, plagiarism, and overstatement.

There’s something eloquent yet curiously old-fashioned about his prose style. The voice is like an audio recording of someone speaking to us from an earlier age. And he uses phrases which flatter his readers. He talks about students ‘writing criticism’ – as if their coursework exercises were about to be published.

It’s a shame there is no bibliography or index. These are omissions which should be rectified if the book ever makes its long-overdue second edition.

© Roy Johnson 2005

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David Pirie, How to Write Critical Essays: a guide for students of literature, London: Routledge, 1985, pp.139, ISBN: 0415045339

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Sample Essay Economics

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First year undergraduate study

This example is from a first year undergraduate course in social studies. The course is designed to introduce students to selected topics in economics, government, and social policy. Students taking the course might be from other disciplines, and tutors are expected to take this into account.

Question

Assess the claim that market forces, if left to themselves, will reduce regional inequalities over time.

Answer

In assessing the effects of undisturbed market forces on regional inequalities is necessary to outline the models of the market – namely Schumpeter’s model of creative destruction, and the neoclassical model of perfect competition. It is also relevant to address the meaning of regional inequality and the divisions that are created. There are three main causes of these equalities: the liberal idea of supply and demand; and cumulative causation. Marxists suggest the capitalist society causes an uneven distribution of wealth throughout the United Kingdom. The strengths, weaknesses and coherence of these theories will be discussed and a conclusion of their relevance in today’s society sought.

When writing Capitalism Socialism and Democracy (1943) J.A.Schumpeter outlined a model of creative destruction which “conceptualises competition as a dynamic forward-looking quest for innovation in products and processes that will put the corporation ahead of its rivals in the race for market leadership” (Module 3, page 85). The firms involved are competing against each other for business and so they are keen to seek new ideas for the latest innovations in production. Constant change occurs in a market in which articles and superseded constantly and made obsolete by innovation. Improvements in processing goods (for example in machinery) enables the supplier to manufacture economically. Economies of scale make fixed financial outgoings (such as maintenance to buildings) spread out over larger output. Increased profit ensures success for the best companies.

‘Perfect competition’ is the neo-classical idea of a balancing mechanism controlling the market. The supply side is affected by the availability of labour, raw materials, machinery, power and technology. On the demand side, individuals income, lifestyle, age, social conventions and expectations affect the balance. Firms have little say in setting the price of their goods because if the supply exceeds the demand the
price will decrease. Conversely if the demand for an article increases, but it cannot be supplied readily enough, then the price will increase. This theory is a classic example of liberal ideology because the starting point is the individual.

Similarly, as with their choice in purchase, the individual and employer are in a position to make rational choices about where they, respectively, choose to work and where they choose to invest. Due to them wanting the best for themselves, they will move to suit their needs. An employee may move area to receive higher pay, or company establish in an area where rent is lower. This theory suggests moving in such a way will equalise any disparities over time.

This was the thinking of the newly-elected conservative government in 1979 under the leadership of Margaret Thatcher. Liberal economic policies were introduced at this time. Competitive markets leading to efficiency, freedom of choice from more traders, and less burden on the countries economy. Deregulation (for instance transport) and privatisation (for example gas) would boost competition. A market led system in which “the free and undisturbed play of market forces could normally act as the invisible hand, efficiently and effectively co-ordinating the activities of the individual in ways which advance the interests of all” (Society and Social Science – A Reader Anderson + Ricci, page 262).

Prior to this, in the post-war period (1945-1970) state involvement in market activity meant high taxes and high public expenditure support of regionally based and nationalised industries. Then globalisation meant the United Kingdom faced competition not only from within but now from the rest of the world, thus affecting the demand side of the balancing mechanism. If a natural resource is present, such as oil three pre-conditions apply “that the technology exists to extract and use the oil, that there is sufficient demand for the oil (at the right price) and that the power to exploit and use the oil is present” (Module 20, page 69)

The cumulative causation theory opposes ‘supply and demand’ because “regional advantages are seen to accumulate rather than even out, once ahead a prosperous region will stay ahead” (module 20, page 87). Myrdal (1957) suggested the idea of vicious and virtuous circles. Areas would either spiral up or down in their fortunes. This is known as a ‘regional multiplier effect’. Growth generates growth. Development of a region occurs when more investment in that region means more direct employment (real jobs with security, good working conditions, improved employment structure, better pay structure, and good working conditions). Also related employment is created in connection with services for the new earning workforce with their enhanced spending in services such as entertainment. New communities become established with better housing, transport, shops, schools, and a greater share of the public spending budget going towards improved health and education. Dependent employment, this would include manufacturers of the machinery in the factory, workers who depend on the initial investment indirectly.

Development in a region may occur when industry is established bringing little employment, with less control at work, less income generated for the region, and perhaps negative attributes such as pollution and environmental risks (chemical industry, nuclear station or screwdriver plant).

The cumulative causation theory sees the core regions developing at the expense of the peripheral areas. The skilled workers will be drawn to the core to fill the best employment possibilities. These so-called ‘backwash effects’ are counteracted by ‘spread effects’ as economic growth continues the virtuous circle spreads out. The periphery benefits from the cores achievement. This is especially significant today in the ‘shrinking world’. The United Kingdom is the locality (local) within Europe (global).

Marxist ideology is based on a capitalist society with production for profit. Unevenness of wealth within Britain is due to the dominance of one area over another, and is socially constructed. The main example of this being the north-south divide.

Traditionally the south (particularly the south-east) has been wealthier than the north. “A line running across the country usually from the mouth of the river Severn to the Wash is said to divide the prosperous south from the ailing north” (Module 22, page 55). Employment and career prospects, average earnings and success companies is statistically better in the south. Marxist geographers blame the lack of investment and different types of work in the north for the divide.

This issue is raised in ‘Regions Apart’ where William Clance CBE, chairman of ANZ merchant bank is questioned about the reason for this. he talks of how historically the south in particular London has developed as an administrative capital because traders for instance those wanting to import/export goods and ship owners would meet at the Baltic exchange to strike a deal. This has continued to the present day. Businessmen still meet in the capital even though communication networks (faxes, Internet, etc) have transformed. Meeting face to
face is more satisfactory. Companies fund corporate lunches, in which firms attempt to clinch deals with clients. Similarly, because the government is based in London, it would be beneficial to be there. Many companies have a political connection (for example Satchi and Satchi) or lobbying of parliamentarians to persuade decision makers of political effects on their company.

Academically, the best teaching hospitals and top universities are in the south (Oxford and Cambridge) only the very brightest students attend, and the graduates are trained as leaders of men and eventually hold the highest positions in society. Most large companies have their headquarters in London (eg – Hambro Countrywide –
Britain’s largest estate agents) and the major professional institutions
(eg ACCA – Association of Certified Chartered Accountants and Royal College of Nursing). Due to all these factors the relative skill level in the south is better, so too are the average earnings, but there is hardship and affluence on both sides of the divide.

In Britain today many geographical areas are indistinguishable. Large inner cities, housing estates and out of town shopping centres. Despite this each region has its individuality. This can depend on its past character, for example a town previously devoted to cotton production may still have cotton mills on its landscape and perhaps a heritage centre. This can encapsulate also with a traditional labour force.

It can depend on local natural resources such as coal or waterways. Similarly much can depend on an areas links with the wider world, internationalisation has brought many cultures, religions and creeds together.

Many foreign owned and some British based firms brought about a city-country divide in the 1960s. Decentralisation involved their head offices dismantling large workplaces in the inner city and moving to branch plants or back offices in the country. The advantages included less congestion and closer proximity to the market and a new ‘green workforce. This comprised unradical women who were willing to accept lower pay and conditions, instead of militant men who demanded more of the company.

Either of the liberal methods of supply and demand or cumulative causation would in theory work if no intervention was applied, because of their very nature they would even out regional equalities over time. Exponents of each theory choose to quote a time in history that emphasises their model to suit themselves.

Note that nonetheless these have opposite views. Neo-classicism suggests that inequality will eventually disappear. Whereas, despite spread effects the cumulative causation theory postulates continued inequality (unless of course government actively takes measure to counteract it.)

There seems to me more weight behind the Marxist theory, because regional inequality exists everywhere. In all regions there are affluent areas and slums. Also this can be a matter of opinion “one man’s palace is another man’s prison” and each locality has interlocking activity space. In the world we live in today, it would be impossible to create a system without intervention even if it was government policy. The European government would want to intercept and help the poorest places in the United Kingdom as it does today.

Tutor comment

What you have written in conclusion is interesting and relevant to the general discussion of regional inequality, but re-read the question. It asks you to “assess the claim that market forces if left to themselves will reduce regional inequalities”. This is clearly the position of the Neo-classical school so your conclusion should specifically assess. That is, say what its strengths and weaknesses are in comparison to the other two theories. You have tended to conflate the Neo-classical and Cumulative Causation theories, though you imply an assessment by saying that there is more weight behind the Marxist analysis. However, you do not overtly assess the Neo-classical theory. Note that the essay question guidance notes suggest that you judge theories by their explanatory power, openness, and reach. Some use of these concepts would have enabled you better to assess the Neo-classical claim. Have another look at the course module.

However, this is an interesting and well-informed essay which indicates that you have a good knowledge of the course materials. Regrettably you did not read the student guidance notes or the question rubric carefully enough, and as a result your assessment of the Neo-classical perspective is implicit rather than overt. Paradoxically your writing is rather glib in some respects and yet rather prolix in others. For example you omit crucial aspects of the Marxist position and yet go into a lot of descriptive detail with respect to other examples.

Note that the Cumulative Causation theory does accept the notion of markets and supply and demand [see my note on your script] but suggests a different outcome than the Neo-classical School, namely that despite some spread effects, inequality persists over time. To improve your marks you need to make sure that you are saying precisely what you mean, and focus on what the question asks more directly. In this case assessing the Neo-classical claim [see my earlier note concerning the criteria of comparison – explanatory power, reach and openness.

On the whole though a rich and interesting essay.

Script monitor’s comments

Plenty here for the student to get her teeth into. Your comments are informative and should help her iron out her misunderstandings of and engage more meaningfully with the theories she has covered. Her failure to address the question is a common one I find at all level courses, and your comments will help put her back on track, while warning her of the penalties inherent in ignoring guidance given in the notes. On the other hand she will also be in no doubt about what she is doing right and should be encouraged by the positive tone of what you have to say.

© 2003

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Sample Essay Government

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G.C.E. ‘A’ level

Students working at this level are expected to show that they have a firm grasp of the basic concepts and principles of the subject. They should also demonstrate that they are capable of extending their understanding into more advanced aspects of the discipline. They are required to show that they have studied selected aspects of the subject in considerable detail. Essays set at this level require the student to produce clear and thoughtful answers with some sense of organised construction and evidence of close analysis and coherent argument.

Question

What has the premiership of Mrs. Thatcher told us about the need for reform of the powers of the British prime minister?

Answer

The government and politics of Great Britain is concerned with the use of political power. It should, therefore, come as no surprise that many of the debates concerning British politics tend to concentrate on the institutions which supposedly wield power. One such debate is concerned with the proposition that the Prime Minister has replaced the Cabinet as the centre of political power in British government.

Most people would agree that Mrs. Thatcher has displayed many of the classical characteristics associated with Prime Ministerial government. She has used her powers of patronage to gradually replace the Heathite ‘wets’ in the cabinet with people who share her radical beliefs. Furthermore Mrs. Thatcher has convened various ad hoc and ‘standing’ Cabinet committees (the choice of membership is up to her) to by-pass full Cabinet meetings.

A case in point was the ad hoc committee set up to consider Michael Heseltine’s proposals for helping the inner cities. Heseltine’s report (based on his visits to Merseyside after the 1981 riots in Toxteth) advocated vastly increased spending on inner city regeneration but the amount was drastically slashed because all the other members of that committee were Thatcher loyalists who were committed (as she was) to reducing public spending. Thus Heseltine was isolated when faced with a committee loaded against him.

To add to this Mrs Thatcher has often attempted to stifle Cabinet discussion by firmly controlling the Cabinet agenda and minutes. This was why Michael Heseltine eventually resigned over the Westland affair and it provides a good example of how the use of the powers of a Prime Minister can seriously damage his or her de facto power. Mrs. Thatcher’s undoubted dominance has been aided by strict party discipline of Conservative MPs in the House of Commons and the prerogative to call a general election at a time most beneficial to the Conservative Party.

However all these characteristics have been displayed by Prime Ministers in the pre-Thatcher era. For instance Harold Wilson came under considerable criticism for his Ministerial appointments after the 1964 General election because they were based on loyalty rather than any reasons of merit. Richard Crossman also cited many cases of the operation of Wilson’s ‘kitchen Cabinets’ which were composed of the Prime Minister’s personal cronies. Crossman claimed that it was these bodies which took all the major decisions and that the full Cabinet was by-passed. Wilson also attempted to control the Cabinet agenda in a way which would stifle discussion. This was shown by his failed attempt to restrict Cabinet discussion over the devaluation of the pound in 1967.

Strict party discipline in the House of Commons has been with us since the Reform Act of 1867 and so it is not a phenomenon peculiar to the Thatcher years. Similarly the power of dissolution has been used by successive Prime Ministers to try and enable their party to win the general election. In 1935 for instance, the National Government gained a majority of 247 thanks to the decision of Stanley Baldwin to hold a general election after Great Britain had applied sanctions against fascist Italy.

Therefore as far as these classic characteristics of Prime Ministerial power are concerned, Mrs Thatcher has only continued to pursue the same lines of action as other Prime Ministers before her. From this evidence it can only be concluded that as far as these classic characteristics are concerned, the Premiership of Mrs Thatcher has not told us anything new about the need for reform of the powers of the Prime Minister.

It is certainly true that Mrs. Thatcher has used these powers more effectively than most. However this does not mean that we are provided with any further justifications for reform of the powers of the Prime Minister. However this is not to say that Mrs. Thatcher’s Premiership has not demonstrated the need for reform. In certain areas Mrs. Thatcher has greatly enhanced her own powers in a way that none of her predecessors did.

The Prime Minister’s control over Cabinet appointments is nothing new. But Mrs. Thatcher has extended such blatant patronage to the higher ranks of the higher Civil Service. Before 1979 the convention was that the Prime Minister merely ratified candidates put in front of them by the Civil Service itself. But Mrs. Thatcher has deliberately interfered in the appointment of top Civil Servants because she wants to avoid any possibility of Civil Service obstruction towards her monetarist policies. This has entailed appointing so-called ‘can-do’ men who will advise on policy as well as carry it out in a manner which shows them to be totally committed to government ideas.
This politicization of the Civil Service has been matched by a decision making structure which has brought Civil Servants far more into policy making than ever before. All this has been Mrs. Thatcher’s creation.

There are very serious dangers concerning these events. For instance what will be the reaction of a future Labour or SLD government who face a supposedly neutral higher career Civil Service staffed with Thatcher appointees committed to Thatcherite policies? Since 1979, Mrs. Thatcher has appointed 43 Permanent Secretaries and 138 Deputy Secretaries. Will the Civil Service become a political football with all parties trying to shape it in their own image? Moreover one of the great virtues of a totally neutral Civil Service is the fact that it will provide an idea of the possible dangers of a policy.

A Civil Service which is as committed to policy objectives as the politicians may well become so shortsighted as to laugh off serious dangers in the same way as the politicians do, with the end result being a policy disaster which could affect the whole country. To add to this there is always the danger that civil servants may conspire with the politicians to falsify public information (such as unemployment statistics) in order to win votes for the party in power. In fact with the abolition of the Central Review Policy Staff and the subsequent creation of the ‘Number Ten Policy Unit’ an intricate system of objective advice and information has virtually disappeared.

The very fact that all this has been the work of one woman and her team of advisers shows that there has been a serious erosion of the ‘separation of powers’ principle within the executive structure. Any reform of Prime Ministerial power should concentrate on trying to stop politicians blatantly shaping a very powerful higher Civil Service according to their own needs. Mrs. Thatcher has created this trend and consequently it is her Premiership which has shown the true need for the reform of Prime Ministerial powers in terms of the power of the Prime Minister over the higher Civil Service.

Tutor Comment

This is a very competent essay with a number of very positive features, the most important of which is that it answers the question in a serious and intelligent manner. You also offer evidence to support your arguments and make a successful attempt to be ‘even-handed’ in your consideration of the issues involved. There are weaknesses too, but they are of a minor stylistic nature and can easily be corrected with more practice. You became slightly repetitious at some points (‘powers of the Prime Minister … Prime Ministerial power’) and some of your paragraphs are rather long. [I have indicated where a change of topic calls for a new paragraph.] At this level such thorough work fully deserves a good ‘A’ grade.

© 2003

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guide for students in English and the humanities

This is a lively and comprehensive essay-writing manual which is obviously based on solid experience of helping students to improve their skills. Having written a book on the same subject myself [and with the same title!] I was keen to see what he had to say. Richard Turley talks you through the composition of an essay – from introduction to conclusion. This is done by a close examination of real examples, and he shows how writing can be improved by careful editing and re-drafting.

Essay Writing SkillsAll points of his advice are well illustrated, and he clearly knows where students need most help – though I wasn’t so sure about his discussing logic of argument, punctuation, and arrangement of evidence all at the same time. Several issues at once might be difficult for some students to grasp. However, one advantage of this approach is that the reader is brought close to the real process of composition – where several things do have to be considered at once.

He explains how to generate the structure of an essay – by exploring its question – and how to incorporate and use quotations from critics to strengthen your own arguments.

Then he tackles the thorny issues of making links between topics and guiding readers through an argument. I often suggest to students that their intentions should be made obvious without clunky ‘signposting’ of the ‘First I will discuss…’ variety. But the examples he provides are persuasive.

On conclusions, he goes through a series of edits, showing how the expression of ideas can be clarified and improved. He also covers quotations and the conventions of scholarly referencing (which many students find difficult) plus spelling, good style, and presentation.

He finishes with libraries and the use of computers, plus writing essays under exam conditions. Most of his illustrative material is drawn from literature and the humanities – but the advice he gives will be useful for students in most disciplines.

I enjoyed reading this book. The style is lively and often quite amusing. It’s a shame he doesn’t provide a bibliography; but this is one of the few books on study skills which will actually make you laugh.

© Roy Johnson 2002

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Richard Marggraf Turley, Writing Essays: A guide for students in English and the humanities, London: Routledge, 2000, pp.145, ISBN: 0415230136

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