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guides, glossaries, timelines, bibliographies, and free lessons

English language terms – a glossary

September 15, 2009 by Roy Johnson

terms used in the study of English language

This glossary of English Language terms contains the vocabulary and the jargon you will need in any analysis of language and its use. These terms are needed in a number of different subjects: language and linguistics, communication skills, the analysis of prose and poetry, and even certain aspects of philosophy. Click on the links for further explanations and examples.

Abbreviations
letter(s) or shortened word used instead of a full word or phrase

Accent
the features of pronunciation which indicate the regional or the social identity of a speaker

Acquisition
the process by which language skills are developed – particularly in infancy

Adjectives
a word which modifies a noun or a pronoun

Adverbs
a word which modifies a verb, an adverb, or an adjective

Agreement
the grammatical logic and coherence between parts of a sentence

Alliteration
the repetition of consonant sounds – usually at the beginning of words

Apostrophes
a raised comma used to denote either possession or contraction

Articles
a word that specifies whether a noun is definite or indefinite

Assonance
the repetition of vowel sounds

Audience
the person or persons receiving a speech or piece of writing

Brackets
Curved or square punctuation marks enclosing words inserted into a text

Capitals
Upper-case letters used to indicate names, titles, and important words

Clauses
a structural unit of language which is smaller than the sentence but larger than phrases or words, and which contains a finite verb

Cliché
an over-used phrase or expression

Colons
a punctuation mark indicating a pause ranking between a semicolon and a full stop

Commas
a punctuation mark indicating a short pause in a sentence

Conjunction
a word which connects words or other constructions

Consonant
an alphabetic element other than a vowel

Dialect
a form of speech peculiar to a district, class, or person

Figure of speech
expressive use language in non-literal form to produce striking effect

Form
the outward appearance or structure of language, as opposed to its function, meaning, or social use

Full stop
a punctuation mark indicating the end of a sentence

Function
the role language plays to express ideas or attitudes

Grammar
the study of sentence structure, especially with reference to syntax and semantics

Graphology
the study of writing systems

Homonyms
words with the same spelling but with different meanings

Hyphen
a short horizontal mark used to connect words or syllables, or to divide words into parts

Idiom
a sequence of words which forms a whole unit of meaning

Irony
saying [or writing] one thing, whilst meaning the opposite

Jargon
the technical language of an occupation or group

Language change
the development and changes in a language

Lexis
the vocabulary of a language, especially in dictionary form

Metaphor
a figure of speech in which one thing is described in terms of another

Metonymy
a figure of speech in which an attribute is substituted for the whole

Morphology
a branch of grammar which studies the structure of words

Noun
a word which names an object

Onomatopoeia
a word that sounds like the thing it describes

Oxymoron
a figure of speech which yokes two contradictory terms

Paradox
a figure of speech in which an apparent contradiction contains a truth

Paragraph
a distinct passage of writing which is unified by an idea or a topic

Participle
a word derived from a verb and used as an adjective or a noun

Phonetics
the study of the production, transmission, and reception of speech sounds

Phrase
a group of words, smaller than a clause, which forms a grammatical unit

Point of view
a term from literary studies which describes the perspective or source of a piece of writing

Preposition
a word which governs and typically precedes a noun or a pronoun

Pronoun
a word that can substitute for a noun or a noun phrase

Punctuation
a system of marks used to introduce pauses and interruption into writing

Received pronunciation
the regionally neutral, prestige accent of British English

Semantics
the study of linguistic meaning

Semicolon
a punctuation mark which indicates a pause longer than a comma, but shorter than a colon

Sentence
a set of words which form a grammatically complete statement, usually containing a subject, verb, and object

Simile
a figure of speech in which one thing is directly likened to another

Slang
informal, non-standard vocabulary

Speech
the oral medium of transmission for language

Spelling
the convention governing the representation of words by letters in writing systems

Standard English
a dialect representing English speech and writing comprehensible to most users

Structure
the arrangement of parts or ideas in a piece of writing

Style
aspects of writing (or speech) which have an identifiable character generally used in a positive sense to indicate ‘pleasing effects’

Stylistic analysis
the study of stylistic effects in writing

Symbol
an object which represents something other than its self

Synonym
a word which means (almost) the same as another

Syntax
the arrangement of words to show relationships of meaning within a sentence

Tense
the form taken by a verb to indicate time (as in past-present-future)

Text
any piece of writing or object being studied

Tone
an author’s or speaker’s attitude, as revealed in ‘quality of voice’ or ‘selection of language’

Verb
a term expressing an action or a state of being

Vocabulary
the particular selection or types of words chosen in speech or writing

Writing
the use of visual symbols to represent words which act as a code for communication

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ePublishing and eBooks

October 2, 2009 by Roy Johnson

a selection of resources reviewed

One rapidly expanding opportunity for writers using the Internet is the creation of eBooks. These have the advantage that they can be written, stored, and sent electronically. ePublishing is available for whatever you wish; it doesn’t cost much; you can start small; there are no printing, storage, or postage costs; and you can control the whole process from your back bedroom.

eBooks can be read on desktop computers, but many people prefer to use laptops, eBook readers, or PDAs (Personal Digital Assistants) such as the Palm Pilot. Other people print off the pages and read from the conventional page. So you’ve got to be prepared to supply your text in a number of different formats if you want to reach all audiences.

Creating E-books
Chris Van Buren and Jeff Cogswell address all these issues, and provide you with all the information you need to make a start. They include a survey of the e-publishing business; planning and creating an e-book; getting the book published; finance and copyright; and a selection of personal success stories. One of the more interesting features of the advice they give is that it’s suitable either for individuals with just one book to market, or for people who might wish to set up as publishers, ready to promote several titles. As usual with the excellent Topfloor ‘Poor Richard’ series, every chapter is packed with recommendations for online resources – many of which are low-budget or free.

You can market your own eBooks, but a very popular alternative is to place titles with distributors like Fatbrain and split the proceeds. There are also electronic versions of conventional publishers who will pay you royalties up to fifty percent.

The Internet Writer’s Handbook
This is a detailed guide to publishers of the two formats which are most digital – e-zines and e-books. It’s in the form of an international A-Z listing of the best websites for writers to target, with full contact details for all websites listed. It offers plenty of detail on how to submit your work , how much publishers will pay, and even how they are most likely to respond. The topics these publishers cover range from poetry and fiction, through non-fiction writing, to specialist publications.

Email Publishing
It’s quickly apparent to most writers that this system means that self-publication is an attractive option. In fact Chris Pirillo argues that email publishing can be much more effective than the Web. How is this? Well, he describes publishing via a web site as “like opening a hamburger stand in a dead-end street”. Not many people will pass by, and even fewer are likely to make a purchase.

On the other hand, almost everybody reads their e-mail, so why not use it as a vehicle for publishing instead? Some of the more popular e-mail newsletters have up to 400,000 regular subscribers. In he outlines all the possibilities – discussion groups, bulletins, and announcement lists – but it’s the free e-mail newsletter which is at the heart of this book. He takes you through all the technicalities of how to run one.

This can be used to promote your writing – or even as a hot and direct form of journalism if you are a non-fiction writer. And this guy knows whereof he speaks. He publishes several email newsletters every day, draws down revenue from advertisers, and earns a living from it.

Publish your writing

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Essay plans

September 16, 2009 by Roy Johnson

creating firm structure and clear argument

1. Essay plans
You can approach the composition of an essay using a number of different writing strategies. Some people like to start writing and wait to see what develops. Others work up scraps of ideas until they perceive a shape emerging. However, if you are in any doubt at all, it’s a good idea to create essay plans for your work. The task of writing is usually much easier if you create a set of notes which outline the points you are going to make. Using this approach, you will create a basic structure on which your ideas can be built.

2. Planning techniques
This is a part of the essay-writing process which is best carried out using plenty of scrap paper. Get used to the idea of shaping and re-shaping your ideas before you start writing, editing and rearranging your arguments as you give them more thought. Planning on-screen using a word-processor is possible, but it’s a fairly advanced technique.

3. Analyse the question
Make sure you understand what the question is asking for. What is it giving you the chance to write about? What is its central issue? Analyse any of its key terms and any instructions. If you are in any doubt, ask your tutor to explain what is required.

4. Generate ideas
You need to assemble ideas for the essay. On a first sheet of paper, make a note of anything which might be relevant to your answer. These might be topics, ideas, observations, or instances from your study materials. Put down anything you think of at this stage.

5. Choosing topics
On a second sheet of paper, extract from your brainstorm listings those topics and points of argument which are of greatest relevance to the question and its central issue. Throw out anything which cannot be directly related to the essay question.

6. Put topics in order
On a third sheet of paper, put these chosen topics in some logical sequence. At this stage you should be formulating a basic response to the question, even if it is provisional and may later be changed. Try to arrange the points so that they form a persuasive and coherent argument.

7. Arrange your evidence
All the major points in your argument need to be supported by some sort of evidence. On any further sheets of paper, compile a list of brief quotations from other sources (together with page references) which will be offered as your evidence.

8. Make necessary changes
Whilst you have been engaged in the first stages of planning, new ideas may have come to mind. Alternate evidence may have occurred to you, or the line of your argument may have shifted somewhat. Be prepared at this stage to rearrange your plan so that it incorporates any of these new materials or ideas. Try out different arrangements of your essay topics until you are sure they form the most convincing and logical sequence.

9. Finalise essay plan
The structure of most essay plans can be summarised as follows:

Introduction
Arguments
Conclusion

State your case as briefly and rapidly as possible, present the evidence for this case in the body of your essay, then sum up and try to ‘lift’ the argument to a higher level in your conclusion. Your final plan should be something like a list of half a dozen to ten major points of argument. Each one of these points will be expanded to a paragraph of something around 100-200 words minimum in length.

10. Relevance
At all stages of essay planning, and even when writing the essay, you should keep the question in mind. Keep asking yourself ‘Is this evidence directly relevant to the topic I have been asked to discuss?‘ If in doubt, be prepared to scrap plans and formulate new ones – which is much easier than scrapping finished essays. At all times aim for clarity and logic in your argument.

11.Example
What follows is an example of an outline plan drawn up in note form. It is in response to the question ‘Do you think that depictions of sex and violence in the media should or should not be more heavily censored?‘. [It is worth studying the plan in its entirety. Take note of its internal structure.]

Sample essay plan

Question

‘Do you think that depictions of sex and violence in the media should or should not be more heavily censored?‘

Introduction

Sex, violence, and censorship all emotive subjects

Case against censorship

1. Aesthetic: inhibits artistic talent, distorts art and truth.

2. Individual judgement: individuals have the right to decide for
themselves what they watch or read. Similarly, nobody has the right to make up someone else’s mind.

3. Violence and sex as catharsis (release from tension): portrayal of these subjects can release tension through this kind of experience at ‘second hand’.

4. Violence can deter: certain films can show violence which
reinforces opposition to it, e.g. – A Clockwork Orange, All Quiet on the Western Front.

5. Censorship makes sex dirty: we are too repressed about this
subject, and censorship sustains the harmful mystery which has surrounded us for so long.

6. Politically dangerous: Censorship in one area can lead to it
being extended to others – e.g., political ideas.

7. Impractical: Who decides? How is it to be done? Is it not
impossible to be ‘correct’? Any decision has to be arbitrary

Case for censorship

1. Sex is private and precious: it should not be demeaned by
representations of it in public.

2. Sex can be offensive: some people may find it so and should not have to risk being exposed to what they would find pornographic.

3. Corruption can be progressive: can begin with sex and continue until all ‘decent values’ are eventually destroyed.

4. Participants might be corrupted: especially true of young
children.

5. Violence can encourage imitation: by displaying violence – even while condemning it -it can be legitimised and can also encourage
imitation amongst a dangerous minority.

6. Violence is often glorified: encourages callous attitudes.

Conclusion

Case against censorship much stronger. No necessary connection between the two topics.

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Free fonts – a list of suppliers

September 15, 2009 by Roy Johnson

a selection of free font suppliers

All these sites listed below offer free fonts. Some of the designs are weird and wacky, but they are all give-aways. Don’t expect miracles: font designers put a lot of love and devotion into their creations, but you cannot expect professional standards in something offered free of charge.

The other limitation in free fonts is that you have to accept that they might not include a full set of characters, including all the special figures such as lining and non-lining numbers, fractions, ampersands, accented letters, and dingbats which would be present in a full professional product. Font designers give away these free samples in the hope you will enjoy their designs and maybe purchase from their commercially available materials.

The good news for font lovers is that the price of these original designs has been dropping as a result of advances in digital type technology. If you use any of these fonts in your work, it would be a nice touch of courtesy to acknowledge where you obtained them. Let us know if you find any more.

http://www.k-type.com

http://www.ffonts.net

http://www.misprintedtype.com/v3/fonts.php

http://www.fontsite.com

http://www.1001freefonts.com

http://www.freefonts.org.uk

Digital.com

http://www.philsfonts.com

http://www.fontopolis.com

http://www.microsoft.com/truetype

http://www.abcgiant.com

http://www.chank.com

http://www.mashy.com

http://www.tyworld.com/download

http://www.arttoday.com

http://members.tripod.com/poeticwolf/fonts/

http://www.arts-letters.com

http://www.alteredegofonts.com/

http://www.girlswhowearglasses.com

http://www.fontfreak.com

http://www.smackbomb.com/famousfonts/

http://www.all-4-free.com/fonts

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Free style sheet tutorials

November 17, 2009 by Roy Johnson

XML School

This is a comprehensive introduction to the basic issues of style sheets. The tutorials deal with a single issue on each page, and the site includes interactive examples, a quiz test, plus book reviews. It’s also a model of site design in terms of clarity and usability.
http://www.w3schools.com/css/

Webmonkey
This is everything you need to know about style sheet basics, written by Steve Mulder for Webmonkey.
http://www.webmonkey.com/tutorial/Mulders_Stylesheets_Tutorial

www.w3.org
The home of Web standards. This is a collection of resources and technical specifications from the World Wide Web Consortium. This body looks after the protocols and standards, so the site is always up to date. It also has online validators, so you can check your work.
http://www.w3.org/Style/CSS/

Dave Raggett’s Introduction to CSS
A thorough explanation of style sheet basics – written by somebody who is a member of the W3 organisation which defines style sheet protocols. The tutorial includes useful tips on browser-safe colours.
http://www.w3.org/MarkUp/Guide/Style

Jacob Nielsen’s ‘Effective Use of Style Sheets’
This article is now a little dated – but Nielsen is always worth reading. His emphasis here is on the advantages of style sheets, and how to avoid the most common mistakes.
http://www.useit.com/alertbox/9707a.html

Page Resource.com
Straightforward explanation of how style sheets work written by John Pollock. A bit dated in appearance now, but suitable for beginners.
http://www.pageresource.com/dhtml/indexcss.htm

Web Design Group
Another text-based primer on CSS basics, written by John Pozadzides and Liam Quinn. This too is bit dated in appearance now, but suitable for beginners.
http://htmlhelp.com/reference/css/

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Free web design tutorials

November 16, 2009 by Roy Johnson

learn the basics of HTML coding to make web pages

NB! All these links work at the time of publishing the page – but these sites have a habit of moving. That’s the bad news. The good news is that more established sites have the equally good habit of adding to their tutorials. So what starts out as a simple HTML tutorial might well now include guidance on cascading style sheets, XML, and much else. Be prepared to click around and search. You’ve nothing to lose – because it’s all free.

Jo Barta’s tutorial
This is a very popular free downloadable guide for beginners. It’s strong point is that Jo Barta takes everything one step at a time – and shows what the results should look like. It also contains a useful guide to web-safe colours.
http://www.pagetutor.com/download.html

XML School
This is a very comprehensive site which covers every aspect of HTML and web page design – as well as style sheets, XML, and other refinements. It’s also a model of clarity in site design itself.
http://www.w3schools.com/

Yale Web Style Manual
This does not teach the details of coding – but it’s a wonderful guide to site structure, navigation, and page design. Use it in conjunction with Joe Barta’s tutorial, and you’ve got everything you need.
http://info.med.yale.edu/caim/manual/

HTML 4.0 Reference
An authoritative guide to the HTML language by the Web Design Group, in easily searchable HTML format. You will find full explanations of elements, tags and attributes, and how they are used in an HTML 4.0 document.
http:/www.htmlhelp.com/distribution/

Web Design Group Web Authoring FAQ
Lots of how-to’s and information on overcoming common problems.
http://www.htmlhelp.com/faq/html/all.html

Scott Brady’s ‘Unofficial’ alt.html FAQ
More answers to problems that are often encountered.
http://www.sbrady.com/hotsource/toc.html

Introduction to HTML
A tutorial guide written in plain language with clear explanations of the HTML 4.0 specification from the University of Toronto.
http://www.utoronto.ca/webdocs/HTMLdocs/NewHTML/intro.html

Sizzling HTML Jalfrezi
This is an A to Z reference guide to HTML specification 4.0.
http://vzone.virgin.net/sizzling.jalfrezi/intro.htm

Web Techniques
This an online version of the magazine Web Techniques – with a browsable archive of tutorial articles.
http://www.webtechniques.com

World Wide Web Consortium
This is the official body which co-ordinates all the latest developments in HTML and other Web standards. Visit the site for exact descriptions of cascading style sheets (CCSS) XML, and XHTML – but don’t expect any user-friendly tips and tricks.
http://www.w3.org

MSDN Online Web Workshop
This is Microsoft’s huge collection of tutorial guides for Web developers. Fairly advanced stuff – but very thorough.
http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/aa155133.aspx

HTML Code Tutorial
http://www.htmlcodetutorial.com/

HTML: An Interactive Tutorial for Beginners
http://www.davesite.com/webstation/html/

BigNoseBird.com
http://www.bignosebird.com/

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Free XML tutorials

November 17, 2009 by Roy Johnson

XML School
This is a concise introduction to the basic issues of XML design, including its syntax, elements, Cascading Style Sheets, and ‘behaviours’. It’s also a model of good site design in terms of clarity and usability.
http://www.w3schools.com/xml/

The XML Elements of Style
In honor of Strunk and White, who wrote the inimitable writing guide, Elements of Style, O’Reilly author Steve Muench presents his own succinct and lucid list of rules for creating a well-formed XML document.
http://oracle.oreilly.com/news/oraclexml_1000.html

Tizag.com
This is a slightly geeky, but reasonably useable introduction to XML.
www.tizag.com/xmlTutorial/

XML Files
This is a bare-bones introduction to XML set at intermediate to advanced level. It assumes you already know about HTML coding and protocols.
http://www.xmlfiles.com/xml/

XMLhack
This site offers a digest of the latest XML news, opinions, and tips. Very useful for keeping up to date.
http://www.xmlhack.com

Quackit.com
The designer of this site says – “My aim with Quackit is to ‘de-mystify’ web technologies as quickly as possible and to provide a general overview of each technology first, rather than jumping straight into the technical details.”
http://www.quackit.com/xml/tutorial/

W3CXML
This is the official site of XML standards, provided by the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C). Their documents are extremely thorough, but notoriously dry. Don’t expect any ‘useful tips’ or hand-holding. The site also has online validators for checking your work.
http://www.w3c.org

The Apache XML Project
This is Open Source XML software, provided by Apache, the free, industrial-strength Web server.
http://xml.apache.org

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Glossary of essay instruction terms

September 15, 2009 by Roy Johnson

common terms used in essay questions

1. Instruction terms are words commonly used in essay questions. They instruct or direct you in the approach you should take towards the proposition of the question.

2. The exact meaning of these terms will vary depending upon the subject being studied. The following give some idea of what they normally mean for essays and examination questions.

3. Think carefully about the meaning of these terms in relation to the remainder of the question. Even though you might feel confident, do not become blasé or inattentive. Sometimes even experienced students forget the important difference between Compare and Contrast.

4. Try to understand exactly what an instruction is asking you to do – but be reasonable. Don’t look for problems where they might not exist. If in doubt, ask your tutor.

account for
Explain the reasons for, giving an indication of all relevant circumstances. Not to be confused with ‘Give an account of’ which asks only for a detailed description.

analyse
Study in depth, identifying and describing in detail the main characteristics.

argue
Put forward a proposition, then illustrate it, discuss its significance, and defend it against possible counter-charges.

assess
Examine closely, with a view to ‘weighing up’ a particular situation. Consider in a balanced way the strengths and weaknesses or points for and against a proposition. In conclusion, state your judgement clearly.

comment
State clearly and in moderate fashion your opinions on the material in question. Support your views with reference to suitable evidence or explanations.

compare
Look for similarities and differences between two or more things.

contrast
Deliberately single out and emphasise the differences and dissimilarities between two or more things.

criticise
Give your judgement about a statement or a body of work; explore its implications, discussing all the evidence which is available. Be specific in your examination.

define
Set down the precise meaning of something. Be prepared to state the limits of the definition. Take note of multiple meanings if they exist.

describe
Give a detailed and comprehensive account of something.

discuss
Investigate and examine by careful argument. Explore the implications and the advantages or disadvantages. Debate the case and possibly consider any alternatives. This is probably the most common instruction term. It is inviting you to say something interesting in response to the topic in question. You can choose your own approach.

evaluate
Make an appraisal of the worth of something in the light of its truth or utility. Emphasise the views of authorities as well as your personal estimation.

explain
Make plain. Account for. Clarify, interpret, and spell out the material you present, giving reasons for important features or developments.

how far …
Similar to questions which begin ‘To what extent…‘. You are expected to make your case or present your argument, whilst showing an awareness that alternate or even contradictory explanations may exist. Careful assessment and weighing of evidence are called for.

identify
Pick out what you regard as the key features of something, perhaps making clear the criteria you use in doing so.

illustrate
Make clear and explicit by the discussion of concrete examples.

justify
Show adequate grounds for decisions or conclusions. Answer or refute the main objections likely to be made against them.

outline
Give the main features or the general principles of a subject, omitting minor details and emphasising structure or arrangement.

relate
Show how things are connected, and how they possibly affect, cause, or resemble each other.

review
Make a survey of, examining the subject critically.

state
Present the main points in brief, clear form.

summarise
Give a concise account of the main points of a matter, omitting details and examples.

trace
Follow the development or history of a topic from some point of origin.

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Glossary of text messaging

November 17, 2009 by Roy Johnson

Text messaging is now a normal part of everyday life. These abbreviations will help you to write common expressions with fewer key strokes or button presses. It was once though that communicating in this way, using a form of code, would reduce people’s standards of literacy. We now know that the opposite is the case: see David Crystal’s excellent defence in Txtg: The Gr8 Db8.

Abbreviation	Full expression
@	at
1	one
2	to, too
2day	today
2moro	tomorrow
2nite	tonight
3sum	threesome
4	for
AAM	as a matter of fact
AB	ah bless!
AFAIC	as far as I’m concerned
AFAIK	as far as I know
AKA	also known as
ASAP	as soon as possible
ATB	all the best
B	be
BCNU	be seeing you
Bwd	backward
B4	before
BBFN	bye bye for now
BFN	bye for now
BRB	be right back
BTDT	been there done that
BTW	by the way
BYKT	but you knew that
C	see
CMIIW	correct me if I’m wrong
CU	see you
CYA	see ya!
CUL8R	see you later
CW2CU	can’t wait to see you
Doin	doing
EOL	end of lecture
FAQ	frequently asked questions
FITB	fill in the blank
F2T	free to talk
FOAD	f*** off and die
FUBAR	f***ed up beyond all recognition
Fwd	forward
FWIW	for what it’s worth
FYI	for your information
GAL	get a life
Gr8	great
GD&R	grinning, ducking, and running
GG	good game
HAND	have a nice day
H8	hate
HTH	hope this helps
Hot4U	hot for you
IAC	in any case
IAE	in any event
IANAL	I am not a lawyer (but…)
ICCL	I couldn’t care less
ICL	in Christian love
IDK	I don’t know
IYSS	if you say so
IHTFP	I have truly found paradise [or] I hate this f***ing place
IIRC	if I recall correctly
ILUVU	I love you
ILUVUMED	I love you more each day
IMCO	in my considered opinion
IMHO	in my humble opinion
IMNSHO	in my not so humble opinion
IMO	in my opinion
IOW	in other words
ITYFIR	I think you’ll find I’m right
IYKWIM	if you know what I mean
JM2p	just my two pennyworth
KIT	keep in touch
L8	late
L8r	later
Luv	love
LOL	lots of luck [or] laughing out loud
MGB	may God bless
MHOTY	my hat’s off to you
MMD	make my day
MMDP	make my day punk!
Mob	mobile
Msg	message
MYOB	mind your own business
NE	any
NE1	anyone
NH	nice hand
NO1	no one
NRN	no reply necessary
OIC	oh I see!
OTOH	on the other hand
PCM	please call me
PITA	pain in the arse
PLS	please
PPL	people
PS	post script
QL	cool
R	are
RGDS	regards
ROF	rolling on the floor
ROTFL	rolling on the floor laughing
RSN	really soon now
RU	are you?
RUOK	are you OK?
SITD	still in the dark
SIT	stay in touch
SMS	short message service
SOHF	sense of humour failure
SOME1	someone
Stra	stray
SWG	scientific wild guess
SWALK	sealed with a loving kiss
THNQ	thank you
Thx	thanks
TIA	thanks in advance
TIC	tongue in cheek
Ti2GO	time to go
TPTB	the powers that be
TTFN	ta ta for now
TTUL	talk to you later
TWIMC	to whom it may concern
TUVM	thank you very much
U	you
UR	you are
WAN2	want to
WAN2TLK?	want to talk?
W	with
Wknd	weekend
WRT	with respect to
WTTW	word to the wise
WYSIWYG	what you see is what you get
X	kiss
XLNT	excellent
YKWYKD	you know what you can do
YMMV	your milage may vary
YR	your
YTLKIN2ME?	you talking to me?
YWIA	you’re welcome in advance
YYSSW	yeah, yeah, sure, sure, whatever

Abbreviation

Full expression

one

to, too

2day

today

2moro

tomorrow

2nite

tonight

3sum

threesome

for

AAM

as a matter of fact

ah bless!

AFAIC

as far as I’m concerned

AFAIK

as far as I know

AKA

also known as

ASAP

as soon as possible

ATB

all the best

BCNU

be seeing you

Bwd

backward

before

BBFN

bye bye for now

BFN

bye for now

BRB

be right back

BTDT

been there done that

BTW

by the way

BYKT

but you knew that

see

CMIIW

correct me if I’m wrong

see you

CYA

see ya!

CUL8R

see you later

CW2CU

can’t wait to see you

Doin

doing

EOL

end of lecture

FAQ

frequently asked questions

FITB

fill in the blank

F2T

free to talk

FOAD

f*** off and die

FUBAR

f***ed up beyond all recognition

Fwd

forward

FWIW

for what it’s worth

FYI

for your information

GAL

get a life

Gr8

great

GD&R

grinning, ducking, and running

good game

HAND

have a nice day

hate

HTH

hope this helps

Hot4U

hot for you

IAC

in any case

IAE

in any event

IANAL

I am not a lawyer (but…)

ICCL

I couldn’t care less

ICL

in Christian love

IDK

I don’t know

IYSS

if you say so

IHTFP

I have truly found paradise [or]
I hate this f***ing place

IIRC

if I recall correctly

ILUVU

I love you

ILUVUMED

I love you more each day

IMCO

in my considered opinion

IMHO

in my humble opinion

IMNSHO

in my not so humble opinion

IMO

in my opinion

IOW

in other words

ITYFIR

I think you’ll find I’m right

IYKWIM

if you know what I mean

JM2p

just my two pennyworth

KIT

keep in touch

late

L8r

later

Luv

love

LOL

lots of luck [or] laughing out loud

MGB

may God bless

MHOTY

my hat’s off to you

MMD

make my day

MMDP

make my day punk!

Mob

mobile

Msg

message

MYOB

mind your own business

any

NE1

anyone

nice hand

NO1

no one

NRN

no reply necessary

OIC

oh I see!

OTOH

on the other hand

PCM

please call me

PITA

pain in the arse

PLS

please

PPL

people

post script

cool

are

RGDS

regards

ROF

rolling on the floor

ROTFL

rolling on the floor laughing

RSN

really soon now

are you?

RUOK

are you OK?

SITD

still in the dark

SIT

stay in touch

SMS

short message service

SOHF

sense of humour failure

SOME1

someone

Stra

stray

SWG

scientific wild guess

SWALK

sealed with a loving kiss

THNQ

thank you

Thx

thanks

TIA

thanks in advance

TIC

tongue in cheek

Ti2GO

time to go

TPTB

the powers that be

TTFN

ta ta for now

TTUL

talk to you later

TWIMC

to whom it may concern

TUVM

thank you very much

you

you are

WAN2

want to

WAN2TLK?

want to talk?

with

Wknd

weekend

WRT

with respect to

WTTW

word to the wise

WYSIWYG

what you see is what you get

kiss

XLNT

excellent

YKWYKD

you know what you can do

YMMV

your milage may vary

your

YTLKIN2ME?

you talking to me?

YWIA

you’re welcome in advance

YYSSW

yeah, yeah, sure, sure, whatever

More on How-To
More on literary studies
More on writing skills

House Style

October 31, 2014 by Roy Johnson

an explanation and guidance notes

House Style is a term used to describe the rules laid down by a business or organisation to regularise the presentation of its written communications and documents. In some cases these rules might be summarised formally in a published Style Guide or Style Manual.

The purpose of codifying what can be written may vary from a desire to control a corporate image (business documents); a need to maintain standards and follow established conventions (academic writing); or a need for accuracy and precision (technical manuals).

Many different types of institutions, businesses, publishers, or public bodies will establish a house style in order to maintain their corporate or brand image.

International	United Nations, European Union
Corporations	Lockheed, General Motors, Microsoft
Publications	New York Times, The Economist
Institutions	University of London, Department of Transport
Retailers	Amazon, Marks and Spencer, IKEA

The origins of house style lie in the realm of printing, where newspapers and book publishers originally sought to establish guidelines for standardising their productions. The best known of these guides is Hart’s Rules, first written at the end of the nineteenth century for the Oxford University Press. In the twenty-first century, house style is also likely to include writing and presentation guidelines for what will appear on computer screens.

There are differences of approach in the rules of these various style guides. This should alert us to the fact that they are not only dealing with matters of fact and correctness – but are offering a series of conventions which should be followed by their authors.

They are likely to have policies governing such matters as

The notes given below provide illustrative examples. For detailed information on any topic, follow the links to the online style guides and the newspaper house style sites. Some of their guides are the size of small encyclopedias.

House Style – a real example

Microsoft’s Manual of Style illustrates the company’s rules for both print and screen writing, as well as their requirements for visual presentation and language use.

For instance, each topic they discuss is illustrated by an example of ‘Microsoft style’ and then an example of ‘Not Microsoft style’.

They also specify such fine details as how to present numbers; how to choose the names for toolbars and buttons; how to punctuate lists; how to size titles, sub-headings, and paragraph spaces; and where to use quotation marks.

The following is their table of contents for the topics covered in their house style guide – many of them in extremely fine detail.

Microsoft style and voice
Writing for web delivery
Writing for a worldwide audience
Accessibility issues
The user interface
Technical procedures
Practical issues of style
Grammar
Punctuation
Indexing and keywords
Acronyms and abbreviations

Style guides might now make distinctions between house style for print and for online purposes – because the two mediums are considered quite distinct, and may have different readerships and purposes.

Reading on a computer screen is more tiring than reading from a printed document. For this reason, style guides for digital use may specify shorter sentences and paragraphs, wider margins, and the inclusion of graphics.

House style manuals very often specify how the various departments and personnel in an organisation should be described. They are also likely to specify such details as the size and spacing of titles, headings, and sub-headings.

Spelling

Some words (in English) have more than one spelling. The term judgement can also be spelled judgment. House style rules help to create consistency throughout a document. And consistency is a key principle in creating ease of comprehension.

Newspapers also strive to use consistent spellings for foreign names such as Reykjavik (the capital of Iceland) and Nizhni Novgorod (a port in European Russia).

They are also likely to specify the spelling of names of important people – such as Ban Ki-Moon (Secretary General of the United Nations) and Aung San Suu Kyi (opposition leader in Myanmar – formerly Burma). This shows respect for the person.

American English and British English have minor differences in spelling, so documents aimed at both audiences need to be consistent.

British	centre, harmonise, travelling
American	center, harmonize, traveling

Printed style guides

This is a selection of book reviews featuring style guides published by a variety of organisations.

MLA Style Guide
English – Modern Languages Association – Academic

Microsoft Manual of Style
American – Microsoft Corporation – Business

The Chicago Manual of Style
American – Chicago University – Academic

New Hart’s Rules
English – Oxford University Press – Publishing

The Economist Style Guide
English – Economist Magazine – Journalism

Note of interest — it is said that the complete printed maintenance manuals for the Boeing 737 jet weighed more than the aircraft itself.

Vocabulary

The choice of vocabulary is important because it reflects the nature and the attitude of the organisation. The language you choose needs to be understood by the audience(s). It should be clear, unambiguous, and consistent.

It is now very common for organisations to specify the terms used to describe people with disabilities, ethnic minorities, and issues related to gender.

For instance, the BBC specifies that people with learning disabilities should be used – not mentally handicapped. It specifies Muslim instead of Moslem.

The Guardian newspaper used to prohibit the use of the term regime to describe a government – because the term is clearly derogatory and suggests a bias against a government which might become legitimate in a few week’s time.

The Telegraph newspaper has a list of ‘banned words’ in its house style guide. These are not ideologically taboo words so much as lists of journalistic clichés used in tabloid newspapers – terms such as bloodbath, clampdown, jaw-dropping, and prestigious.

Online style guides

BBC News style guide
Detailed guidelines for print, online, plus radio and television broadcasting. Also includes rules on pronunciation and spelling of foreign names.

English Grammar
Comprehensive grammar guide, with downloadable lessons, interactive exercises, grammar checker, videos, and daily updates.

Purdue On-line Writing Lab
Purdue’s famous OWL, useful for general writing concerns, with links to American academic style guides and how to avoid plagiarism.

The Elements of Style
William Strunk, Jr.’s original 1918 classic. The ‘bare bones’ approach to common problems, with illustrative examples.

On-Line Study Resources
Style, grammar, essay-writing, citations and footnotes, plagiarism and presentation from the University of New South Wales.

alt.usage.english – Style FAQ
Mark Israel’s Frequently Asked Questions covers common English usage questions, word etymology, online and offline references, and more.

WebGrammar
Judy Vorfeld’s excellent site covers some of the most common writing mistakes, including spelling, grammar and homonym errors.

Capitalization

The correct use of capital letters is not quite so straightforward as it might seem. It is not always immediately clear if someone, somewhere, or something warrants a capital or not. The following are some of the more common instances.

days of the week	Wednesday, Friday
places	Scotland, East Anglia
rivers	the river Mersey
buildings	the Tate Gallery
institutions	the Catholic Church
firms	British Aerospace
organisations	the National Trust
months of the year	April, September

However, when such terms are used as adjectives or in a general sense as common nouns, no capital is required:

the King James Bible / a biblical reference

Oxford University / a university education

the present Government / governments since 1967

Capitals are used when describing intellectual movements or periods of history:

Freudian – Platonism – Cartesian – the Middle Ages
the Reformation – the Enlightenment

They are also used in the titles of books, plays, films, newspapers, magazines, songs, and works of art in general. The normal convention is to capitalise the first word and any nouns or important terms. Smaller words such as ‘and’, ‘of’, and ‘the’ are left uncapitalised:

A View from the Bridge
The Mayor of Casterbridge
North by Northwest
The Marriage of Figaro

UK journalism style guides

Financial Times Lexicon

More on publishing
More on journalism
More on creative writing
More on writing skills

How-to guides

guides, glossaries, timelines, bibliographies, and free lessons

terms used in the study of English language

a selection of resources reviewed

creating firm structure and clear argument

Sample essay plan

a selection of free font suppliers

learn the basics of HTML coding to make web pages

common terms used in essay questions

an explanation and guidance notes

House Style – a real example

Spelling

Printed style guides

Vocabulary

Online style guides

Capitalization

UK journalism style guides

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