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Information Technology glossary

October 27, 2009 by Roy Johnson

computers, information technology, and the Internet

Access provider
an organisation that provides access to the Internet. Also known as Internet Service Provider (ISP)

Address
The identification of a physical or virtual distinct entity in a network. On the Internet, this network address is called a URL (Uniform Resource Locator). For instance: http://www.gsh.org. [It is important to type these accurately.]

Anonymous ftp
A publicly available Internet file site. Users must sign on as anonymous and enter their email address to connect to an anonymous ftp site.

Apache
An open source Web server package, mostly used on Linux and Solaris platforms.

Applet
A self-contained mini-executable program, such as one written in the Java programming language. It connects with or is designed to work with a larger ‘partner’ program.

Application servers
Software used to provide an interface between systems to enable Web services.

Archie
A program that locates files that are freely available on anonymous ftp sites across the Internet. To use Archie, telnet to one of these sites and login as archie. Type help to obtain full instructions.

ASCII
American Standard Code for Information Interchange. A standard for digital representation of letters, numbers, and control codes; understood by most computers.

ASP
Active Server Pages – a scripting language created by Microsoft for dynamically created web pages and database functions. Web pages created with ASP usually have an .asp suffix.

Attachment
A binary file (such as a document, spreadsheet, or graphic) which is delivered as part of an email message. [NB – some mailing systems will not accept attachments.]

AUP
Acceptable Use Policy. A binding document signed by all users that explains the rules of Internet use at an institution.

Auto responder
An email message that is sent automatically in response to a message to another email address. Also known as Autobot or Infobot.

Backbone
The Central network infrastructure of the Internet is often referred to as the backbone and its allows data to travel from one network to another.

Backup
To make a second copy of a file as a safety measure. The copy may be held on a floppy disk, a zip disk, or on CD-ROM.

Bandwidth
A Term used to describe how much data you can send through a connection to the Net. The transmission capacity of a given medium, in terms of how much data the medium can transmit in a given amount of time. The greater the bandwidth, the faster the rate of data transmission. Information carrying capacity of a communication channel.

Baud rate
The speed at which a modem can deal with information, measured in bits per second, 56Kbps is currently fastest.

Binary
Files which contain eight-bit bytes (as distinct from ASCII files which contain seven-bit bytes). Some systems can only accept ASCII.

BIOS
Basic Input-Output System. This is the small but fundamental program which starts up your computer and allows you to access your software programs.

Bit
An acronym for BInary digiT. It is the basic unit of information in the computer world. A bit is a digit in binary form and carries one of two
values, 0 or 1.

Bitnet
An autonomous network of academic and research sites.

Bookmark
A word or picture ‘marked’ so that you can jump to it by name from
within a list. Also used by browsers to mark frequently visited web sites.

Boot
To switch on a computer. If the machine is re-started whilst running, this is called ‘re-booting’.

Browser
Software that allows users to access and navigate the World Wide Web. Some Web browsers, such as Mosaic and Netscape, are graphical. Lynx is a text-based browser.

BBS
Bulletin Board Service. A forum for users to browse and exchange information. Computer BBSs are accessible by telephone via a personal computer and a modem. Many BBSs are small operations run by a single person that allow only several users to log on at the same time. Some are much larger and allow hundreds of users to login simultaneously to use the system. Huge, commercial examples are America Online, CompuServe, and Prodigy.

Byte
A single computer character, generally eight bits. For example, the letter ‘G’ in binary code is 01000111.

Cache
A section of computer memory set aside for storing frequently-used data from a disk drive, speeding up the transfer of information.

Cascading style sheets
An extension to HTML which allows style features (colour, font size, spacing, and page-layering) to be specified for certain elements of a hypertext document. CSSs are especially useful for making a global change to multiple web pages – because the style is specified just once, often in a separate file.

CD-ROM
Compact Disk – Read Only Memory: A record like storage medium that uses digital and optical laser technology to store about 600Mb of text, pictures, and sound on a single disk. With newer versions (CD-ROMXA, CDTV, CD-i) animations and moving pictures can be retrieved from the discs.

CD-R
Compact Disk – Recordable: blank compact disks on which data can be recorded – but once only.

CD-RW
Compact Disc Re-Writable format: these are blank compact disks that can be recorded over and over again, like a floppy disk.

CGI
Common Gateway Interface – an interactive system installed on Web servers to automatically process information entered into Web page forms.

Checkbox
A small square box which, when clicked on, displays a cross or
tick to show that an option has been selected.

Chip sockets
Most of the microchips used in a computer are soldered directly to the circuit boards but some, including the main processor and some memory components, are mounted into sockets. This is so that they can be easily replaced or upgraded.

Clipboard
A section of a computer’s memory where you can temporarily copy chunks of text, data, graphics, or pictures. Once in the clipboard, the item can be pasted into another part of a document, or transferred to any other application. The clipboard normally holds one object at a time.

Command prompt
The C:> sign in DOS at which codes are typed. These commands control the computer. For many people, this system has been replaced by the Graphic User Interface [GUI] of Windows.

Commercial online services
A company that, for a fee, allows computer users to dial in via modem to access its information and services, which can include Internet access. Examples are America Online, CompuServe, Delphi, and Prodigy.

Compression
A technique to reduce the size of a file in order to make it more manageable and quicker to download. Compressed files have to be extracted using a utility such as PKZip or WinZip. Such files usually have a .zip extension.

Control panel
This is where many of Window’s settings can be viewed. Here you will find icons for most functions including printers, modems and sound.

Cookies
Small text files created by an Internet web site and stored on the user’s computer. A cookie contains information that can help speed access on subsequent visits, such as passwords and details of the user’s display facilities.

CSS (Cascading Style Sheets)
A way of assigning visual style to the content of Web pages. The style sheet deals with colour, fonts, and the position of text – leaving HTML code to describe the structure of the content.

DBA
DataBase Administrator – is software which administers databases. It can carry out the maintenance of a database, including the applications and content structure.

Database
A computer holding large amounts of information that can be searched by an Internet user. A storehouse of information on the Net.

Default setting
The computer or software settings made by the manufacturer. These will remain in place unless you decide to change them.

Defragmentation
Over time, the files on a computer’s hard disk drive become disorganised. Running a defragmentation program restores order and speeds up the reading and writing of data.

DHTML
Dynamic HTML – an integration of JavaScript, Cascading Style Sheets, and the Document Object Model. With DHTML, the content of a web page can move across the screen or respond to user inputs.

Dialogue box
A box which appears on screen, inviting input from the user. Usually to set options, or choose a name for saving files.

Dialup Internet connection
Lets a user dial into an Internet service provider using a modem and telephone line to access the Internet. The user is presented with a text-based set of menus which are used to navigate the Internet. (See SLIP or PPP connections)

Directory
A list of files or other directories on a computer at an Internet site. (Same thing as a folder.)

Domain
The part of the Internet address that specifies your computer’s location in the world. The address is written as a series of names separated by full stops. The most common top level domains are .edu education (US), .net network resource, .com commercial, .gov public bodies

DOS
Disk Operating System. This is a standard operating system, created by Microsoft before the dawn of Windows. DOS manages how files are stored on your computer. It is controlled through commands typed at the command prompt. Even Windows 95 and Windows 98 are still fundamentally dependent on DOS.

Download/upload
To download is to transfer a file from another computer to the user’s computer. To upload is to send a file to another computer.

DVD
Digital Video Disk: This new medium can store large amounts of data on one disk that looks like a CD, including full length films with high-quality sound and pictures.

E-commerce
Performing business transactions on the Internet – which may include the use of credit cards, ‘shopping trolleys’, forms, and secure servers.

Email
Allows users to send and receive messages to each other over the Internet.

Email address
A code representing a unique email user on the Internet. Examples might include – joe-bloggs@sitename.com, g.allthorpe@yahoo.co.uk

Emoticons
Smileys [ these things 🙂 ] and other character art used to express feelings in email communication.

Encryption
A process that turns files into gobbledegook so that they cannot be read, other than by programs containing the appropriate password-protected encryption software.

Executable files
These are programs or self-extracting files with an .exe filename extension. Clicking on an executable file will start the program running.

Expansion cards
Small circuit boards which are plugged into the main motherboard. They are used for controlling the video output, processing sounds, or communicating with modems and network cards.

Extensions
Files are identified by a three or four letter or number code, called an extension. This comes after the full stop following the filename. Common types include .doc and .txt for word-processor documents. Files ending in .gif and .jpg generally contain images. Files ending in .exe and .com usually contain executable programs which load into memory and carry out a set of instructions.

Extranet
A type of Internet Web site that is a closed community protected by a password and/or firewalls. It is typically provided by businesses for suppliers and key customers.

FAQ
Frequently Asked Questions. Files on the Net which store the answers to common questions. If you are stuck, check the FAQs first, before you ask you own question.

FAT
File Allocation Table. The part of a computer’s disk system that decides how and where disk storage space is allocated.

FTP
File Transfer Protocol. An application program that uses TCP/IP protocol to allow you to move files from a distant computer to a local computer using a network like the Internet.

Filter
Hardware or software designed to restrict access to certain areas on the Internet.

Finger
Software that allows the user to enter the address of an Internet site to find information about that system’s users or a particular user. Some finger addresses return other topic-specific information.

Firewall
A security system, usually for networked computers, which controls access in and out of the network.

Flame
To send a harsh, critical email message to another user, usually someone who has violated the rules of netiquette. May be used as a verb or a noun.

Folder/Directory
Two words for the same thing – a space on your hard disk to store related files or documents.

Frames
A device in HTML which allows multiple windows to be viewed simultaneously in one browser screen. Often used by Web designers to assist navigation.

Free-Net
Any one of more than two dozen freely accessible Internet sites, primarily offering community and educational information.

Freeware
Software programs that are free to use, but the author retains control of the original code.

Gigabyte
A measurement of storage space. Equal to a thousand megabytes.

Gopher
A menu-based system for browsing Internet information.

GUI
Graphical user interface. Software designed to allow the user to execute commands by pointing and clicking on icons or text. It’s pronounced ‘Gooey’.

Hacker
A computer user who illegally visits networked computers to look around or cause harm.

Hard disk
A high capacity storage device that a computer uses for programs and data, measured in megabytes or gigabytes. Information held on a hard disk is safe when the power is withdrawn.

Hits
The number of requests for files made to a Web server. A much misunderstood term. It is not the number of unique visitors. A typical Web page is made up of one HTML file, plus a number of graphics. One request for this page results in several hits.

Home page
The first page a user sees when visiting a World Wide Web site.

Host
An Internet company providing storage space for web sites on their server computer(s).

HTML
Hypertext Markup Language. The programming language of the World Wide Web, HTML software turns a document into a hyperlinked World Wide Web page.

HTTP
HyperText Transfer Protocol: The protocol used to provide hypertext links between pages. It is the standard way of transferring HTML documents between Web servers and browsers.

HTTPS
HyperText Transfer Protocol Secure – is used to secure Web sites by using encrypted traffic to and from the user by means of Secure Socket Layer (SSL).

Hypertext/hyperlink
A highlighted word or graphic in a document that, when clicked upon, takes the user to a related piece of information on the Internet. When the cursor passes over a link, it usually changes from an arrow to a pointing hand.

Icon
A small picture displayed on-screen to identify a command or file. Many word-processors use an icon of a magnifying glass to indicate it will start a search function.

Infobot (or mailbot)
An email address that automatically returns information requested by the user.

Internet
The global network of networks that connects more than three million computers (called hosts). The Internet is the virtual space in which users send and receive email, login to remote computers (telnet), browse databases of information (gopher, World Wide Web, WAIS), and send and receive programs (ftp) contained on these computers.

Internet account
Purchased through an Internet service provider, the account assigns a password and email address to an individual or group.

Intranet
A private internal network based on TCP/IP, usually for the information of staff within a business or an organisation.

IRC
Internet Relay Chat. Interactive, real-time discussions between people using text messages. Users log into designated Net computers and join discussions already in progress.

Internet server
A computer that stores data that can be accessed via the Internet.

ISDN
Integrated Services Digital Network – a set of communications standards offered by telephone carriers which provides users with fast Internet connections.

ISP
Internet Service Provider. Any organization that provides access to the Internet. Many ISPs also offer technical assistance to schools looking to become Internet information providers by placing their school’s information online. They also help schools get connected to the Net.

Internet site
A computer connected to the Internet containing information that can be accessed using an Internet navigation tool such as ftp, telnet, gopher, or a Web browser.

IP address
Every computer on the Internet has a unique numerical IP address
assigned to it, such as 123.456.78.9.

J2EE
Java 2 Enterprise Edition. Middleware written in Java used in critical, large-scale networked developments, such as electronic banking.

Java
A programming language developed by Sun Microsystems used for cross-platform Web-based applications. Its primary contribution to the Web has been in the form of Java Server Pages (JSP), J2EE  and it is also used in ‘applets’ – mini-programs written in Java that run in browsers.

JavaScript
A scripting language developed by Netscape that adds interactivity to web pages. Its name reflects a shared syntax with the Java programming language.

JPEG
A widely-used graphic file format. Acronym of the Joint Photographic Experts Group. (It’s pronounced ‘Jay-peg’.)

JSP
Java Server Pages – a scripting language based on Java for developing dynamic Web pages and sites. It is typically used on Solaris and Linux platforms.

Junk email
Email messages which are received, but not asked for or even wanted. (Also known as ‘spam’.)

Keyword
A word or words which can be searched for in documents or menus.

Killer application
A software program which is so successful that it corners the market, or inspires people to upgrade their equipment in order to be able to use it.

Knowbot
Software that searches Internet ‘white pages’ and lists of users at large institutions, to find a person’s name and address.

LAN
Local Area Network: A private transmission that interconnects computers within a building or among buildings for the purpose of sharing voice, data, facsimile, and/or video.

Linux
A version of the Unix operating system designed to run on PCs. Controversial because it has been developed as part of the Open Sources movement and given away free of charge. Very popular for Web servers and appliances.

Logon
To sign on to a computer system.

Mailing lists (or Listserv)
There are more than 4,000 topic-oriented, email-based message bases that can be read and posted to. Users subscribe to the lists they want to read and receive messages via email. Mailing lists are operated using listserv software. Thus, many users call mailing lists ‘listservs’. There are two types of lists: moderated and unmoderated. Moderated lists are screened by a human before messages are posted to subscribers. Messages to unmoderated lists are automatically forwarded to subscribers.

Megabyte
A measure of storage space. 1 Mb roughly translates to a million characters of text, or 180,000 words.

Menu
A list of information that leads to documents or other menus.

Middleware
Applications and servers designed to take content from otherwise incompatible back-end data sources (often legacy – that is outdated – systems) and pass it on to Web front-ends.

Mirror
Some FTP sites are so heavily used that in order to relieve the load, their entire contents are copied to and made available by other sites. These are then known as ‘mirror sites’.

Modem
Acronym for MOulate DEModulate. An electronic device that attaches to a computer and links that computer to the online world via a telephone line. Modems are available for any computer, can be internal or external, and come in several speeds, known as the baud rate. The higher the baud rate, the faster the modem. A modem of 56,000 baud is now considered the standard. Most Internet service providers allow you to dial into their systems at rates up to 33,600 baud and beyond.

Motherboard
The main printed circuit board inside a computer, containing the main processing chip, memory chips, plus all the other circuits needed to control the disk drives, the keyboard, and to communicate with plug-in extension cards.

MP3
A popular, highly compressed file format used for music.

MPEG
A family of multimedia standards developed by the Motion Picture Experts Group, commonly used to refer to audio or visual files saved with MPEG compression schemes. Files usually have an .mpg extension (pronounced ‘Em-Peg’).

MySQL
An Open Source development of the SQL language for talking to databases. Most commonly used amongst small business users and run on Linux operating systems.

National Information Infrastructure
The official U.S. government name for the Internet and other computer networks. Commonly known as the Information Superhighway.

Netiquette
The rules of conduct for Internet users. Violating netiquette could result in flaming or removal from a mailing list. Some service providers will even cancel a user’s Internet account, denying him or her access to the Net, if the violation is severe enough.

Netscape
Internet navigation software that allows users to access information through a graphical, point-and-click interface rather than text-only screens or menus. Netscape is known as a Web browser because it accesses World Wide Web information formatted into special home pages using hypertext. Other graphical Web browsers include Microsoft’s Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox, Google Chrome, and Opera.

Net surfer
Someone who browses the Internet with no definite destination.

Network
A group of computers that are connected in some fashion. Most school networks are known as LANs, or Local Area Networks, because they are networks linking computers in one small area. The Internet could be referred to as a WAN, or a Wide Area Network, because it connects computers in more than one local area.

Newsgroups
These are the bulletin boards of the Internet. There are around 20,000 groups covering every subject under the sun. Most IAPs have a newsgroup server which periodically takes all new messages from a newsgroup feed and adds the messages which have been posted by its own users. To access the newsgroups stored on your IAPs newsgroup server you need a newsreader program.

OCR
Optical Character Recognition. Software that translates a scanned image of printed or typewritten text into a plain text file that can be read by a word processor.

Online/Offline
When you are logged onto a computer through your modem, you are said to be online. When you are using your computer but are not connected to a computer through your modem, you’re said to be working offline.

Operating System
The operating system or OS is a program, or a collection of programs, that manages all your computer’s resources – disk drives, RAM, display screen – and controls how files are stored and retrieved.

Packet
A bundle of data transmitted across a network. It contains the source address (where the packet has come from) the destination address (where it’s going to) a packet identifier (what sort of packet it is) and the data being sent.

PC card
Short for PCMCIA – Personal Computer Memory Card International Association. It is a standard-sized module used in laptops for memory expansion and other peripherals, including modem cards.

PCI
Peripheral Component Interconnect. A type of connector on computer motherboards, used for expansion or adapter cards.

PDF
Portable Document Format – a file format developed by Adobe Systems for capturing formatted page layouts for distribution. Requires the proprietary Adobe Acrobat Reader, which is now given away free of charge.

PHP
A scripting language used for developing dynamic Web pages and sites. It is typically used on Solaris and Linux platforms.

Plug-in
An extra bit of software which has to be added to a Web browser before a certain type of file can be viewed. Recent browsers come with the most popular plug-ins pre-installed.

Portal
A Web site that acts as a doorway or introduction to many other Web sites that are sometimes grouped into categories [Yahoo is a famous example].

Posts
Email messages sent to a mailing list or Usenet newsgroup to be read by subscribers or others on the Internet.

Program
Used as a noun – a series of instructions which tell a computer what to do. Used as a verb – the act of writing or revising a program.

Public domain software
Shareware programs that are free to use and modify, as the author has relinquished control over the code.

RAM
Random Access Memory. A computer’s working memory, where programs store information when they are running. The bigger it is, the less time your computer will have to wait to get data from the hard disk drive.

Registry
A large, constantly changing file in Windows 95, containing details of how your computer is set up, and all the programs stored on the hard disk.

RFC
Request for Comments. Online documents that have to do with technical standards for the Internet.

Scandisk
A Windows utility that checks the integrity of data stored on a hard disk drive, identifies problems, and where possible puts them right.

Scanner
A machine that scans a printed image, such as a photograph or a page of text, and turns it into a file that can be displayed and manipulated on a computer.

SCSI
Small Computer System Interface [pronounced ‘Scuzzy’]. A high speed data interface that uses a card, which plugs into an ISA [integrated system architecture] socket on the computer motherboard. SCSI cards that use PCI slots are also available.

Search engine
An online service which can trawl through the contents of the Web (Websites, newsgroups, email addresses) looking for specific phrases or words. The engine asks you for keywords and then provides a list of web sites that contain your chosen words. Clicking on the listed web sites will take you to the relevant web page.

Sectors
Hard disk drives are split into tracks and sectors, which is a way for the computer to identify where particular files or pieces of data are stored.

SGML
Standard Generalised Markup Language – a meta-language that provides a comprehensive set of syntax rules for marking up the structure of documents and data. [HTML is a subset of SGML.]

Shareware
Software programs that you can try before you buy. If you decide to use a program, you should send a payment to the author or publisher.

Signature file
Return address information such as name, telephone number, and email address that users put at the bottom of email messages. Known as a ‘sig’.

SLIP or PPP
Serial Line Internet Protocol (SLIP) or Point to Point Protocol (PPP) Internet connections. Both allow a computer to connect to the Internet using a modem and telephone line. Users then navigate the Internet using software on their own computer. This is in contrast to using a Dialup Internet Connection, where a user is forced to navigate the Net using a text-based set of menus.

SOAP
Simple Object Access Protocol – which provides a way for applications to communicate with each other using XML.

Spam
Slang for posting the same message to multiple newsgroups – frowned on by most people on the Internet.

SQL
Structured Query Language – a standard language for talking to databases.

SSL
Secure Socket Layer – secures Web sites with encrypted traffic to and from the site user (see HTTPS).

Streaming
A technology for delivering audio or video files so that they can be heard or seen whilst downloading, without having to wait for the complete file.

Style sheet
A template or a file which defines the layout of a document or a series of documents.

Telnet
Allows users remote access to computers, most often at libraries, universities,
and government agencies.The remote computer thinks you are using its own keyboard.

Templates
A ready-prepared document layout. Many word-processors have simple pre-formed letterheads, fax headers, memos, and invoices. To customise them for your own needs, you simply change the sample text.

Text-based Internet account
The user must use Unix commands to navigate the Internet.

Unix
A computer operating system which allows multiple clients to access one host at the same time.

URL
Uniform Resource Locater. This is the (rather clumsy) name for the address of any resource on the Internet. You type the URL into your browser, and are taken to that address.

Usenet newsgroups
More than 17,000 topic-oriented message bases that can be read and posted to. Also called newsgroups.

UUencode
A means of translating binary data so that it can be sent as an ASCII file across the Internet. (You need a decoder to convert it back into its native format at the other end.

Virus
A special type of program which is designed for malicious purposes. It spreads by attaching itself to other programs and then carrying out unwanted and often damaging operations.

Veronica
A computer program that helps users find what they are looking for on gopher servers around the world. Instead of looking through menus, Veronica allows users to enter keywords to locate the gopher site that holds the information they want.

Virtual
A computer-generated environment.

VRML
Virtual Reality Modelling Language. This is a file format which allows you to create 3D graphics for the Internet.

WAIS
Wide Area Information Servers These servers allow users to conduct full-text keyword searches in documents, databases, and libraries connected to the Internet. Pronounced ‘Ways’.

Wizard
A self-activating program that guides you through a simple set-up routine for a particular feature or application.

World Wide Web
A revolutionary browsing system that allows point-and-click navigation of the Internet. The Web is a spiderweb-like interconnection of millions of pieces of information located on computers around the world. Web documents use hypertext, which incorporates text and graphical links to other documents and files on Internet-connected computers.

XML
Extensible Markup Language – a new standard for marking up documents and data. It is based on SGML, but with a reduced feature set that is more appropriate for distribution via the Web. XML allows authors to create customised tags not available in HTML.

XSL
Extensible Style Language – a system for controlling the presentation of XML documents and structured data.

Zipping
The process of compressing a file so it takes up less space. There are two types of Zip files, normal (which require a program to extract them) and self-executing that open up automatically. PKZip and WinZip are popular zipping and unzipping programs.

© Roy Johnson 2009


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Information Technology timeline

October 1, 2009 by Roy Johnson

milestones in IT development

1617. Scottish mathematician John Napier invents logarithms and constructs set of ‘rods’ or ‘bones’ for performing mechanical calculations.

1642. French mathematician and philosopher Blaise Pascal constructs and demonstrates a mechanical adding machine.

1666. German mathematician Gottfried Leibniz writes on the value of binary numbers in De Arte Combinatore.

1694. Leibniz constructs first mechanical device to successfully perform all four arithmetic functions (addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division).

1804. French engineer Joseph Jacquard develops punched card system for programming looms – weaving cloth to match a set of commands. Holes in the cards correspond to binary Open/Closed. This system of in-putting data into machines persists until 1960s

1823. English engineer Charles Babbage invents The Difference Engine – the first mechanical computer.

1834. Babbage designs and starts to build ‘Analytic Engine’ – Augusta Lovelace [Byron’s daughter] writes the first computer program.

1847. English mathematician George Boole publishes ‘Mathematical Analysis of Logic’ and uses the ideas of binary numbering to fuse logic with algebra.

1925. American engineer Vannevar Bush designs and builds the first multipurpose mechanical analogue computer.

1936. English mathematician Alan Turing puts together binary notation and Boolean logic to produce tests for mathematical probability. He proposes ‘Universal Turing Machine’ – a theoretical construct which contains all the logical and mathematical elements of what would be a modern analogue computer.

1940. American electrical engineer Claude Shannon uses Boolean logic to optimise relay-switching circuits in his MA thesis at MIT.

1945. Vannevar Bush publishes ‘As We May Think’ in Atlantic Monthly, outlining what we now call ‘hypertext’. Hungarian mathematician John van Neumann conceives the first stored computer program.

1948. First computer using stored program built at Manchester University. Turing’s proposal for a ‘Turing Computing Engine’.

1962. ‘Spacewar’ – first graphical computer game.

1968. Douglas Englebart demonstrates ‘windows’ and mouse in San Francisco.

1969. Myron Krueger develops first prototypes of virtual reality.

1974. Ted Nelson self-publishes Computer Lib and Dream Machines outlining his ideas on hypertext in paper form. Standard General Markup Language (SGML) first invented as a universal publishing language.

1975. Bill Gates and Paul Allen found Microsoft

1978. Philips and Sony introduce the laserdisk (analogue video)

1981. IBM introduces the first PC

1983. Microsoft launches its first version of Windows. Myron Krueger Artificial Reality

1984. Apple-Mac launched – DNS (Domain Naming System) introduced – Number of Internet hosts reaches 1,000

1985. Commodore Amiga launched (powerful graphics facility) – First Amstrad released in UK.

1987. Ted Nelson’s Literary Machines describes Project Xanadu – his scheme for electronic commerce and micro-payments. Hypercard (hypertext program) added to the Apple-Mac. Number of Internet hosts reaches 10,000

1989. Tim Berners-Lee develops Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) and the World Wide Web at CERN in Geneva. Howard Rheingold’s Tools for Thought. Number of Internet hosts reaches 100,000

1990. Archie (search tool) released by McGill University. Microsoft launches Windows 3.0

1991. CERN launches the World Wide Web. Howard Rheingold’s Virtual Reality – an early work on the sociology of computer users. Gopher (search tool) released by University of Minnesota.

1992. Veronica (search tool) released by University of Nevada. Number of Internet hosts reaches 1,000,000

1993. Marc Andreessen, NCSA, and University of Illinois develop Mosaic – the first graphical interface to the WWW. A recorded 341,634 per cent growth rate in Web traffic.

1994. First eCommerce (shopping malls and banks) arrive on the Web, and Web traffic second only to FTP-data transfers. Linux 1.0 open source operating system released.

1995. First search engines developed. Sun launches JAVA programming.

1996. Browser wars begin between Netscape and Microsoft. Web censorship in China, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Germany, and New Zealand.

1998. Extensible Markup Language (XML) introduced. Dotcom boom takes off. Estimated size of Web – 320 million pages.

2000. Dotcom crash begins (April). Size of Web estimated at one billion pages.

2003. Google claims a searchable database of 3.6 billion web pages.

2005. Google claims a searchable database of 8.2 billion web pages.

2006. Google claims a searchable database of 25 billion web pages.

2008. Google claims a searchable database of 1.0 trillion (1,000,000,000,000) web pages.

© Roy Johnson 2009


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Instruction terms in essay questions

August 23, 2009 by Roy Johnson

sample from HTML program and PDF book

1. Instruction terms are words commonly used in essay questions. They instruct or direct you in the approach you should take towards the proposition of the question.

2. The exact meaning of these terms will vary depending upon the subject being studied. The following give some idea of what they normally mean for essays and examination questions.

3. Think carefully about the meaning of these terms in relation to the remainder of the question. Even though you might feel confident, do not become blasé or inattentive. Sometimes even experienced students forget the important difference between Compare and Contrast.

4. Try to understand exactly what an instruction is asking you to do – but be reasonable. Don’t look for problems where they might not exist. If in doubt, ask your tutor.


GLOSSARY

account for
Explain the reasons for, giving an indication of all relevant circumstances. Not to be confused with ‘Give an account of’ which asks only for a detailed description.

analyse
Study in depth, identifying and describing in detail the main characteristics.

argue
Put forward a proposition, then illustrate it, discuss its significance, and defend it against possible counter-charges.

assess
Examine closely, with a view to ‘weighing up’ a particular situation. Consider in a balanced way the strengths and weaknesses or points for and against a proposition. In conclusion, state your judgement clearly.

comment
State clearly and in moderate fashion your opinions on the material in question. Support your views with reference to suitable evidence or explanations.

compare
Look for similarities and differences between two or more things.

contrast
Deliberately single out and emphasise the differences and dissimilarities between two or more things.

criticise
Give your judgement about a statement or a body of work; explore its implications, discussing all the evidence which is available. Be specific in your examination.

define
Set down the precise meaning of something. Be prepared to state the limits of the definition. Take note of multiple meanings if they exist.

describe
Give a detailed and comprehensive account of something.

discuss
Investigate and examine by careful argument. Explore the implications and the advantages or disadvantages. Debate the case and possibly consider any alternatives. This is probably the most common instruction term. It is inviting you to say something interesting in response to the topic in question. You can choose your own approach.

evaluate
Make an appraisal of the worth of something in the light of its truth or utility. Emphasise the views of authorities as well as your personal estimation.

explain
Make plain. Account for. Clarify, interpret, and spell out the material you present, giving reasons for important features or developments.

how far …
Similar to questions which begin ‘To what extent…‘. You are expected to make your case or present your argument, whilst showing an awareness that alternate or even contradictory explanations may exist. Careful assessment and weighing of evidence are called for.

identify
Pick out what you regard as the key features of something, perhaps making clear the criteria you use in doing so.

illustrate
Make clear and explicit by the discussion of concrete examples.

justify
Show adequate grounds for decisions or conclusions. Answer or refute the main objections likely to be made against them.

outline
Give the main features or the general principles of a subject, omitting minor details and emphasising structure or arrangement.

relate
Show how things are connected, and how they possibly affect, cause, or resemble each other.

review
Make a survey of, examining the subject critically.

state
Present the main points in brief, clear form.

summarise
Give a concise account of the main points of a matter, omitting details and examples.

to what extent … Similar to questions which begin ‘How far …‘. This term is used in questions asking you to show your own judgement. It’s unlikely that there will be a black or white answer. You are expected to argue your case, offering evidence to support your view(s). It also gives you the opportunity to discuss both weaknesses and strengths for a case.

trace
Follow the development or history of a topic from some point of origin.

© Roy Johnson 2003

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Internet Writer’s Guide

June 15, 2009 by Roy Johnson

advice  plus extensive online resources for authors

How can the Internet help authors today? Isn’t writing still just a matter of putting pen to paper? There are so many new developments in electronic publishing, free web space, media mergers, and online bookshops: won’t these take our attention away from being creative? Well yes, they might. But they also open up exciting new possibilities. That’s why Jane Dorner has written The Internet: A Writer’s Guide – as a road map through the maze.

Internet Writer's GuideShe starts from the most logical point – how to get connected, what equipment you need, and how to operate the essentials. In the discussion of email she begins to consider the special needs of writers – how to send attachments; how to submit work to publishers; even how to conduct email interviews.

On the Web, she explains the techniques of efficient searching, how sites are used for publishing, and what to do when it all goes wrong.

She touches on writing groups which exist in the form of mailing lists, websites, newsletters, chat groups, and conferences. The strength of this approach is that given a little trial and error, most writers will be able to locate the sort of forum which suits them best.

There’s an interesting chapter on electronic publishing and what are now becoming known as e-book readers. This is very timely, as the market potential for this type of distribution has just opened up again with the success of products such as the 3″ X 5″ PalmPilot – the latest version of which can download Web pages and e-books off the Net, but still fit in your shirt pocket.

She then explores both the new opportunities for writers created by the Internet and the practicalities of publishing on your own web site. I was glad to see that she didn’t waste too much time with coding and page layout, all of which can be picked up easily elsewhere. She concentrates instead on issues of copyright, payments, encryption, plagiarism, and censorship. These topics will be far more live issues for the majority of writers tempted by the possibilities of online publication.

But by far the best part of the book – the ‘killer app’ so far as most writers will be concerned – is the final chapter listing online resources. She gives annotated lists of all the sources a writer could possibly wish for – from libraries to bookshops, dictionaries to writing circles, newspapers to writing style guides, electronic publishers to free Internet service providers. Just working your way through the list with your browser open would be an education in itself. The list has been enlarged for the second edition – and made available at the book’s website.

What I like about this guide is that it combines a lightness of touch with a thoroughness of approach. It gets straight to the point, uses a minimum of technical jargon, and covers a wide range of topics pertinent to aspiring authors. If you are a writer, and you’re ready to explore a rich source of suggestions for what to do next with the Net, then buy this book. You will not regret it.

© Roy Johnson 2002

The Internet: A Writer's Guide   Buy the book at Amazon UK

The Internet: A Writer's Guide   Buy the book at Amazon US


Jane Dorner, The Internet : A Writer’s Guide, London: A & C Black, second edition 2001, pp.200, ISBN: 0713661267


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Introductions in essays

August 23, 2009 by Roy Johnson

sample from HTML program and PDF book

1. The introductions to essays should address directly the question or topic(s) you have been asked to discuss. Introductions which are clear and direct usually signal the start of essays which will be addressing the relevant issues.

2. You should aim for a bright and crisp opening statement which will be interesting and seize the reader’s attention. The statement should also be directly relevant to the question topic.

3. Do not merely restate the question, and try to avoid repeating the same terms in which it is posed. You may however wish to translate the question into your own words, paraphrasing it as a demonstration that you understand what it calls for.

4. Unless the question specifically calls for it, avoid long-winded ‘definitions’ in which the key terms of the question are explored for all their possible meanings. Your understanding of what the question means should usually be clear from your introductory remarks.

5. The introduction should not normally occupy more than five to ten percent of the total length of the essay. Two hundred words on the first page should normally be enough. More than this might be taking too long to get to the point.

6. If in doubt, go straight to your answer. Some tutors argue that having no introduction at all is better than producing one which is rambling, cloudy, or vague. If all your arguments are directly relevant to the question, your approach to the question will quickly become apparent.

7. Even if you think the question is especially difficult or that it embraces complex issues, you should avoid saying so as part of the introduction. This can create the impression that you are making excuses in advance of your answer.

8. Questions are set to pose problems: your task is to answer them. You might however wish to name or outline any difficulties – so long as you go on to tackle them.

9. Some people use an appropriate quotation as a means of starting the introduction. (This strategy can also be used to round off conclusions).

10. If you use this approach, you should follow the quotation with some interesting observations of your own. Do not give the impression that you are using somebody else’s work as a substitute for your own.

11. The following offers an introductory paragraph in response to a first year undergraduate philosophy question: ‘Are there universals?’

Plato was the first philosopher to deal comprehensively with the concept of universals, and he did so in such a compelling manner that his ideas still have an influential force today. His general method is to set himself questions (through the mouthpiece of Socrates). He begins The Republic by asking ‘What is Justice?’ and goes on in pursuing this question to ask ‘What is the Good?’. This method, it will be seen, somewhat predetermines the nature of his answers.

12. Many people find introductions difficult to write, particularly if this is the first part of the essay assignment they attempt. Don’t feel surprised by this. The reason is likely to be that –

  • You are not sure what you are going to say
  • You may not be sure what it is you are introducing
  • You can’t summarise an argument which doesn’t yet exist

13. The solution to this problem may be to leave the introduction until the essay has been finished – in its first draft. It will be much easier to compose introductory remarks after the first attempt has been produced. You will then have a grasp of your overall argument and maybe some idea of its structure.

14. In some subjects [principally the sciences] you might be required to declare in an introduction the approach your essay will take. You might even give some account of the structure or the sequence of information. If this is the case, the composition of an introduction should create no problems.

© Roy Johnson 2003

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Irony – how to understand it

September 7, 2009 by Roy Johnson

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Irony – definition

irony Irony is saying (or writing) one thing, whilst meaning the opposite.

redbtn The true meaning may be conveyed by vocabulary – or even by tone.


Examples

“So you’ve lost the keys. That’s clever!”

“You’re standing on my foot – thankyou!”


Use

redbtn Irony is a means of making a critical comment by casting a topic into a new light or reversing a perspective on it.

redbtn It is often used to make witty observations.

redbtn People using irony are distancing themselves from the subject in question.

redbtn NB! Irony should not be confused with sarcasm, which is a direct remark meant to wound or offend.

redbtn There are various types of irony. They have in common the adoption of a distance from the subject for satirical or critical effect.

redbtn A speaker might take up an opponent’s argument and then exaggerate it to reveal its weaknesses. This is Socratic irony.

redbtn Writers or speakers might pretend to hold opinions which are the exact opposite of what they truly believe. [The reader or listener must be alert and skillful to avoid being drawn into a trap.]

redbtn Dramatic irony occurs when the audience at a play know something of which the characters on stage are ignorant [the lover hidden in the next room].

redbtn Irony is often classed as a form of humour, along with sarcasm and satire. These do not necessarily evoke laughter, but rather a wry shrug or assent to the idea that the received world picture has been disturbed.

Self-assessment quiz follows >>>

© Roy Johnson 2003


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Jargon – how to understand it

September 7, 2009 by Roy Johnson

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Understanding jargon – definition

understanding jargon Jargon is ‘the technical vocabulary of a profession or group’.

redbtn The word is used as a form of criticism when such terms are used unnecessarily for communication outside a group.


Examples
legal probate, conveyance, intestate
computers download, Megabyte, serial port
engineering sprocket, crankshaft, centrifuge
gardening mulch, perennial, phlox

Use

redbtn Jargon can be a useful form of communication between members of the same group. It acts as a ‘shorthand’ which eliminates the need for lengthy explanations.

redbtn The most important thing about jargon is that it should only be used when communicating with people in the same group.

redbtn Some items of jargon eventually pass into common use because they seem to fill a need. Terms such as own-goal [from football] or repression [from psycho-analysis] were once jargon.

redbtn NB! There is often a very fine line between jargon [salary] and pretentious nonsense [personal remuneration package].

redbtn There is nothing wrong when jargon is used amongst members of the same group. It often acts as a sort of ‘shorthand’, which eliminates the need for lengthy explanations.

redbtn For instance, the foreman in a garage does not need to write on a mechanic’s worksheet:

‘Please regulate the device which provides a constant supply of petrol to the inlet manifold of the engine.’

redbtn He writes ‘Adjust the carbuettor’ — or even ‘Fix the carb’.

redbtn However, when you are communicating with people outside a group, you should use jargon as little as possible.

redbtn The term jargon in its most negative sense describes the use of technical or obscure terms when addressing a general audience.

For instance, what follows is a sentence in a letter from the Inland Revenue. It is addressed to ordinary members of the public.

The basis of assessment for Schedule D Case I and II, other than
commencement and cessation, is what is termed a previous year
basis.

redbtn This is an example of bad manners and poor communication. [Would you know what a ‘previous year basis’ means?]

redbtn Academic study has its own jargon too, depending upon the subject in question. Terms such as hegemony (political philosophy) discourse analysis (linguistics) and objective correlative (literary studies) would not be recognisable by an everyday reader, though they might be understood by someone studying the same subject.

redbtn Whatever the jargon of your own discipline, it should be used with precision, accuracy, and above all restraint.

redbtn Eric Partridge quotes the following example to illustrate the difference between a statement made in technical and non-technical form:

‘Chlorophyll makes food by photosynthesis.’

‘Green leaves build up food with the aid of light.’

redbtn Only use the specialised terms of your subject if you are quite sure of their meaning. Never use jargon to show off or ‘impress’ your reader. It is likely to create the opposite effect.

redbtn Do not use a jargon term where perfectly ordinary terms will be just as effective. There is not much virtue in using terms such as aerated beverages instead of fizzy drinks. These simply cause disruptions in
tone and create a weak style.

redbtn Here is an even more pretentious example, spotted recently:

“Enjoy your free sample of our moisturising cleansing bar”

redbtn …in other words – our soap.

Self-assessment quiz follows >>>

© Roy Johnson 2003


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Jargon in essays

August 23, 2009 by Roy Johnson

sample from HTML program and PDF book

1. Jargon is ‘the technical language of a profession or group’. The implication of this definition is that their language may not be understood by people outside the group.

2. For example, when solicitors use terms such as ‘probate’, ‘conveyance’, and ‘leasehold’, they are using the jargon of their profession, which is usually only understood by other solicitors. Similar examples could be given for doctors, engineers, and even bookbinders.

3. There is nothing wrong when jargon is used amongst members of the same group. It often functions as shorthand, which eliminates the need for lengthy explanations. However, when you are communicating with people outside a group, its use should be minimised.

4. The term jargon in its most negative sense describes the use of technical or obscure terms when addressing a general audience. For instance, a letter from the Inland Revenue to an ordinary member of the public which contains the following sentence is an example of bad manners (and poor communication):

The basis of assessment for Schedule D Case I and II, other than commencement and cessation, is what is termed a previous year basis.

Some steps have been taken to eliminate this occurrence in public documents, but there is still a long way to go.

5. Academic discussion can have its own jargon too, depending upon the subject in question. Terms such as ‘hegemony’ (political philosophy) ‘discourse analysis’ (linguistics) and ‘objective correlative’ (literary studies) would not be recognisable by an everyday reader, though they might be understood by someone studying the same subject.

6. Whatever the jargon of your own discipline, it should be used with precision, accuracy, and above all restraint. Only use the specialised terms of your subject if you are quite sure of their meaning.

7. Never use jargon to show off or ‘impress’ your reader. It is likely to create the opposite effect. Similarly, do not take half-understood jargon from one discipline and import it into another.

8. Take the trouble to learn the meanings of these specialised terms within the context of your subject. A word might have a particular meaning when used within a subject discipline which it does not have in general usage.

9. Do not use a jargon term where perfectly ordinary terms will be just as effective. There is not much virtue in using terms such as ‘aerated beverages’ instead of ‘fizzy drinks’. These simply cause disruptions in tone and create a weak style.

10. Here is an even more pretentious example, spotted recently.

‘Moisturising cleansing bar’ [in other words – ‘soap’]

© Roy Johnson 2003

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Key terms in essay questions

August 23, 2009 by Roy Johnson

sample from HTML program and PDF book

1. Key terms are those parts of a question which either state or reveal its subject.

2. Key terms should be distinguished from instruction terms, which tell you how to approach the question, and how to deal with the subject.

Question
‘Discuss the significance of railways in the Industrial Revolution’

3. Both the terms ‘railways’ and ‘Industrial Revolution’ are key terms here. These are the subject of the question. You are being asked to concentrate on one topic (‘railways’) in relation to a specified historical period (‘the Industrial Revolution’).

4. The term ‘discuss’ on the other hand is an instruction term. This tells you how to approach the question.

5. Don’t expect key terms to jump off the page at you – or to be
unproblematic. Sometimes you will need to think carefully about the possible implications of the subject. They might also be expressed in very ordinary language.

Question
‘To what extent was Clement Atlee a successful politician?’

6. It is the term ‘To what extent’ which acts as an instruction: you are free to construct your own response. The key term is ‘successful politician’, which isn’t as obvious as it might first appear. Does ‘successful’ mean winning general elections, or being the author of policies which are adopted? You would need to give careful thought to these issues.

6. In order to make these distinctions (particularly when they are not obvious) you should be prepared to analyse questions very carefully.

© Roy Johnson 2003

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Language acquisition – understanding it

August 27, 2009 by Roy Johnson

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Language acquisition – definition

language acquisition The term ‘language acquisition’ refers to the process by which humans begin to use language in speech.

redbtn In linguistic study it usually refers to child language development, but it can refer to adult acquisition of any language.


Examples

redbtn There are three main theories of language acquisition:

Behaviourist [Skinner] – language is learned by imitation

Cognitive [Piaget] – understanding leads to competence

Innate [Chomsky] – language automatically acquired


Use

redbtn Chomsky’s innateness theory has superseded the others and is now generally accepted as definitive.

redbtn Some knowledge of language acquisition theory is useful to anyone studying the English language, especially to schoolteachers who are teaching youngsters to read and write.

redbtn Speech therapists and audiologists also need to have a substantial knowledge of how language is acquired and developed.

redbtn NB! We acquire language just as we acquire the ability to walk upright. [That’s the current theory, anyway.]

redbtn In the study of language, speech is considered primary and as a system which is entirely separate from writing.

redbtn Children who are learning to write often confuse the two. They produce a written form of speech.

redbtn Maturity is demonstrated by the ability to use a literary style which is completely discrete and separate from speech.

redbtn Humans acquire speech due to their innate programming. Writing on the other hand is a skill which must be learnt in the same way as driving, sewing, or cooking.

redbtn Chomsky has argued that children do not learn language but acquire it by means of an innate facility. This means that they will be able to use language, just as they will walk on two legs or acquire a second set of teeth.

redbtn All children develop their ability to use language at approximately the same age and the same rate, despite any variations in nationality or circumstances.

redbtn In the process of child language development, the acquisition of phonology, semantics, and grammar progresses simultaneously until linguistic maturity is reached around the age of seven.

redbtnAfter this, an individual’s linguistic competence varies according to training, environment and perceived necessity.

redbtn Most people who have not studied child language acquisition would say that children acquire language by imitating what they hear. Even parents of young children are often of this opinion.

redbtn However, scientific research [and careful observation] shows that this is not true. The following is just some of the evidence in support of the innateness theory.

redbtn Young children acquire language universally at roughly the same rate, despite differences in their upbringing.

redbtn Children produce utterances they have never heard. For example, children often say ‘I goed’ instead of ‘I went’ or ‘I felled’ instead of ‘I fell’.

redbtn These mistakes (which amuse parents) are actually proof of the child’s programmed competence. In adding the sound ‘ed’ they are over-applying the rule for forming the past tense.

redbtn In other words, their pre-programmed facility is working. They actually have to learn those irregularities separately. The same process occurs in forming the plural of nouns.

redbtn The rule for this in English is to add ‘s’ or ‘es’ — as in houses, books, roads, toys, and most common nouns.

redbtn However, when it comes to terms such as ‘women’, ‘mice’, ‘sheep’, or ‘narcissus’, the child will over-apply the rule and say ‘mouses’, or ‘womens’ or ‘sheeps’. These mistakes are a positive sign that the innate faculty is operating.

redbtn The truth is that parents imitate children, rather than the other way round. In any supermarket or on any bus, we hear parents repeating a child’s baby-talk. If they are not doing this they are translating the baby talk. What is definitely noticeable by its absence is the child imitating adult speech.

redbtn Adults believe they are teaching children to speak, but research shows that children ignore these attempts and progress at their own pace. The process is useful however, as part of the desirable emotional bonding between adult and child.

redbtnPiaget believed that language competence went hand in hand with understanding the world around us. A child would only be able to speak meaningfully about concepts already internalised.

redbtn For example, a child would have to understand that a specified amount of water will reach vastly differing levels if poured into a narrow beaker or a wide bowl. Only then, would the child be able to verbalise anything concerning this phenomenon.

redbtn Piaget also divided the language learning process into three or four distinct stages. In the 1960s this lead to the practice of teaching foreign languages in primary schools to children of the ‘critical learning age’. This practice was quickly abandoned, because the children were very slow at picking up the foreign language compared with adults who were receiving the same method of tuition.

redbtn Skinner as a behaviourist believed that imitation was all and that children learnt language by imitation.

redbtn Whilst this is true for some factors of the acquisition process — such as learning the exceptions to rules of grammar – all the evidence points to the validity of the innateness theory.

redbtn Learning a foreign language is difficult unless the individual has been exposed to more than one language from infancy.

redbtn In adults, learning a foreign language means gaining a skill rather than drawing on the innate capacity, as in child language acquisition.

redbtn The most efficient way of acquiring a foreign language, therefore, is to be surrounded by native speakers of the language. This is the nearest to the natural process, but it can’t be the same because of the individual’s cognisance with his or her native tongue.

Self-assessment quiz follows >>>

© Roy Johnson 2003


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