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language use, etymology, and historical change

language use, etymology, and historical change

A-Z of Grammar and Punctuation

July 17, 2009 by Roy Johnson

pocket guide to the basics of English language

Most people are a bit frightened of grammar and punctuation – with some reason, because both can be very complex issues. Fortunately, anybody who can speak their own language is already in possession of all the tools they need for using it correctly. This isn’t to say that we don’t need a little help from time to time. And that’s where guides like this one come in useful. John Seely starts off with a brief overview of English sentence structure, and how the parts relate to each other. He explains all the main elements of speech, and uses everyday examples as illustrations. Then it’s on to the main substance of the book, which starts at abbreviations and runs via main clause to who’s/whose and will/shall. In between, he covers all the main issues which crop up time and again as problems for everyday users of English.

Grammar and PunctuationHow do you punctuate lists of terms? How can you avoid the split infinitive? What is the rule for using apostrophes? What is the difference between can and may? What’s the correct way to show speech in writing? Is between you and me correct English? Answer: yes it is.

He uses a minimum of jargon, and makes all his explanations as succinct as possible. I particularly liked one visual feature of this book. Longer topics, such as paragraphs and prefixes are given their own shaded boxes, and somehow this makes both the topic and its surrounding items easier to read.

This book will be ideal if you want a reference offering quick simple explanations, but you could also use it as an introduction to a more in-depth study of the subject.

This is a new series from OUP – a pocketbook guides on the basics of writing and language skills. They’re small, cheap, cheerful, and compact, yet authoritative – the sort of thing which I imagine would be ideal for students or the average person-in-the-street who wants to take on the first principles of improving their language skills.

© Roy Johnson 2009

A-Z of Grammar and Punctuation   Buy the book at Amazon UK

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John Seely, Oxford A—Z of Grammar and Punctuation, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2nd edition 2009, pp.192, ISBN: 0199564671


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An A-Z of Effective Vocabulary

January 17, 2010 by Roy Johnson

1001 words you need to know and use

I’m often amazed at the number of verbally articulate people who freeze up the minute the need to express themselves in writing.  They get a couple of words onto the page, and then seem to hit a blank wall. Alternatively, they might be asked to describe something they know perfectly well, and produce what looks like a note to the milkman. The unproven theory I offer to students to help them overcome this problem is that writing is like sport: you need to practice regularly to stay in shape. An A-Z of Effective Vocabulary is an antidote to this problem.

An A-Z of Effective VocabularyYou also need to have a vocabulary at your disposal that’s appropriate for the writing task at hand. That’s where this book is aiming to help. It’s a sort of specialist dictionary with extra supplements that act as guides for common writing tasks. The effective vocabulary items have been grouped for you in advance, according to your activity Here’s how it works.

You start from the point of having a common writing task. This could be any one of the following:

  • writing a report
  • drafting a business proposal
  • expressing your opinion
  • discussing a topic
  • describing an event
  • writing a CV and job application

First you consult the subject index, which lists the terms you might need according to your objective:

  • Application letters
  • Describing events
  • Essays and term papers
  • Evaluation reports
  • Funding bids
  • Interview techniques

and so on. Here you find listed a selection of vocabulary items which are likely to be effective. For instance, in the section for writing CVs, you are offered able, accomplish, accredited, accurate, achieve ,active, adapt and so on.

If you are writing a report, you will find a list of words you could use in your report, to help present your explanation or argument in a persuasive way. For example, you could choose accurate, compelling, enterprise or significant. By then turning to the main A-Z sequence you will find guidance on the meaning and use of these words.

This is, in one sense, the most important part of the book, where you are invited to learn the subtle shades of meaning which attach to words. You are also given examples of their use in different contexts to illustrate these distinctions.

objective adjective, noun
adjective not influenced by personal opinions or feelings, but considering only the facts: There’s little objective evidence to suggest that he is guilty • It’s hard for parents to be objective about their own children • noun something you are trying to achieve: What is the main objective of this project? • You must set realistic aims and objectives for yourself.
Usage objective, goal or target? See target. Usage The opposite of objective is subjective, ‘based on your own ideas or opinions rather than facts and therefore sometimes unfair’: a highly subjective point of view • Everyone’s opinion is bound to be subjective.
Word family objectively adverb Try to weigh up the issues as objectively as you can. objectivity noun: The survey’s claims to scientific objectivity are highly dubious.

Also included is a guide to pronunciation – which is particularly useful for words such as penchant which are of foreign origin. This is a curious book, but one which writers who need assurance might find helpful. It’s the latest addition to the popular mini-series that includes the Oxford A-Z of Grammar and Punctuation, the Oxford Guide to Plain English, and the Oxford A-Z of Better Spelling.

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© Roy Johnson 2010


Martin H. Manser, An A-Z of Effective Vocabulary, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010, pp.166, ISBN: 0199560056


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Better Wordpower

July 27, 2009 by Roy Johnson

learn how words are formed, written, and used

Better Wordpower is a popular language guide based on a simple notion – that a deeper grasp of language and the way words are used is the sure route to more efficient and effective communication. It offers several different approaches to what Reader’s Digest used to call Improve your Wordpower. It begins by showing you how to use dictionaries, encyclopedias and other language books effectively.

Better Wordpower Then it goes through the basic rules of spelling; lists of words which are commonly confused (affect and effect for instance); a list of foreign words and phrases; and a list of antonyms – words which mean the opposite, as in eager and apathetic or winsome and repulsive.

One of the most useful sections for increasing your wordpower is that listing prefixes and suffixes (what they call ‘word parts’) which help in the formation of new terms (auto- self, or automatic – as in autobiography, automobile or -ectomy surgical removal – as in vasectomy, appendectomy).

This is followed by an explanation of words used in common areas of human activity – animal life, architecture, art, astronomy, botany, computers, diseases, finance, geology, language, mathematics, music, physics and chemistry, psychology and psychiatry, shipping, and weather.

There are even illustrations in these sections, making the book like a mini-encyclopedia. Some of these categories seem somewhat arbitrary, but at least they point the user in the direction of intellectual categories – which is one of the prime purposes of the book.

The compilation ends with another very useful list of difficult, obscure, and what they call ‘hard’ words. These range from the reasonably well-known (alopecia ‘baldness’) to more abstruse terms such as (loricate ‘having an armour of scales or plates’).

All in all, it’s an accessible and readable guide which helps you through some of the most common pitfalls and complications of the English language. Ideally suitable for beginners, users in the classroom, or self-improvers of any kind.

Better Wordpower   Buy the book at Amazon UK

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© Roy Johnson 2005


Janet Whitcut, Better Wordpower, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000, pp.329, ISBN: 0192801082


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Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language

June 14, 2009 by Roy Johnson

history, grammar, and use of world’s languages

If you take a close interest in language, a dictionary alone is sometimes not enough. You occasionally need a book like this which can explain basics. It isn’t an encyclopaedia in the normal sense: it’s a very readable series of articles, essays, definitions, tables, maps and pictures on every conceivable aspect of languages from around the world. In fact it’s the only reference book of its kind I’ve ever read all the way through, from start to finish. David Crystal has devoted his life to the study of language, and of all his many books on the subject, his Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language is the one to which I return most often.

Encyclopedia of Language It’s a wonderful compendium of easily accessible information on all aspects of language, and there are gems of information on every page. It is written in a lively, non-pedantic style, and is profusely illustrated in such a way as to reinforce our understanding and make it more interesting.

He offers a very readable and humane way to introduce anyone to the wonders and mysteries of human language. He covers topics such as the origins and diversity of languages; the differences between the spoken and the written word; phonetics, semantics, and stylistics; the contentious issues of pronunciation, accent, dialect, and slang; alphabets, dictionaries, and thesauri; language acquisition and language change; grammar, spelling systems, and graphology. If it’s remotely connected with language, you will find it here – explained in a straightforward and often quite amusing manner.

I’ve used this book regularly ever since it first appeared. In fact it oscillates between office and home. The first version appeared in 1987, but you should make sure you get the latest second edition, because David Crystal has added material which takes into account the linguistic changes wrought in the decade since the original’s inception. It also includes a comprehensive glossary of terms and long lists of suggestions for further reading. There’s everything here you will need until you are ready to study language at quite an advanced level.

© Roy Johnson 2010

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David Crystal, The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 3rd edn 2010, pp.524, ISBN: 0521736501


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Computers and Language

July 10, 2009 by Roy Johnson

essays on computers, teaching, and writing

What has been the impact of the PC in the classroom? Computers and Language is collection of essays presenting the results of studies monitoring research on the subject, and it offers one or two extended position papers and guides to software. John Pratt for instance explores the commonly observed phenomenon that students tend to be less inhibited in exploring writing programmes than their tutors – a point reinforced by other contributions. Maybe the next generation will have a different attitude to composition if they have grown up in front of a screen rather than a note book?

Computers and LanguageChris Breeze argues in a letter to his headmaster that working on a PC encourages children to re-draft their work. Most teachers of writing would probably agree that this is something to be encouraged. It is interesting to observe however that one or two of the articles start out as a celebration of the PC as a liberating tool for students, but then gradually reveal the author’s wish to control production. Teachers rule – OK?

There are a couple of [obligatory?] chapters dealing with Hypertext as an adjunct to constructing narratives. Stephen Marcus inspects the use of Hypertext programmes [GUIDE, HYPERCARD] and makes what in the hands of school-age children might be rather ambitious claims for them. If the debates currently raging in the alt.hypertext newsgroup are anything to go by, this is still a contentious issue. There is as yet no fictional hypertext which has staked a claim for aesthetic distinction – but its defendants point out that no other medium produced a masterpiece at first outing.

The most engaging and informative contribution is from Noel Williams – a straightforward review of the software available to assist authors in the post-writing phase. He examines programmes such as GRAMMATIK (then still in version IV) WRITER’S WORKBENCH, and CORPORATE VOICE. In the end he comes down heavily in favour of Ruskin. Like most other commentators on this type of spell- and grammar-checking software, he suggests that people should not be intimidated by rule-governed programmes, encouraging us to “ignor[re] those parts of the system which do not match … writer’s needs”.

One of the main problems with articles and publications of this nature is that they are now rapidly superseded by software updates and discussion which takes place more immediately on the Internet. Nevertheless, there is probably good reason for a place for this collection in the departmental library.

© Roy Johnson 2001

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Moira Monteith (ed), Computers and Language, Oxford: Intellect, 1993, pp.159, ISBN: 1871516277


Filed Under: Language use Tagged With: Computers, Computers and Language, Language, Writing skills

Damp Squid: English Laid Bare

June 2, 2009 by Roy Johnson

how language is changing – and why

Truth be told, this is quite an advanced book on language use written from deep within the research vaults of the English linguistic history, but it’s written in a language that most people will be able to understand. Behind the apparently frivolous and amusing selection of examples in Damp Squid, Jeremy Butterfield is offering a serious update on how lexicography is conducted in the digital age.

language useDictionaries are no longer constructed from contributions handed in on slips of paper by enthusiastic amateurs: they are compiled by software programs crunching vast stockpiles of words stored in databases – known as the ‘corpus’. This is a collection of examples of how the English language is actually being used, drawn from the printed word – from literary novels and specialist journals to everyday newspapers and magazines, and from Hansard to the language of chatrooms, emails, and weblogs.

The complete database (of the Oxford Corpus) contains over two billion words, and is being expanded at the rate of 350 million new words every year. The Corpus reveals those words we use most frequently (the, is, to and) – but it has to be observed that these are based on written evidence – not the language we speak.

He looks at the origins of English language, which comes from a bewildering variety of sources – Old English, French, Norse, Greek and Latin, plus words borrowed from more than 350 other languages.

The current social activities generating most new words include information technology, lifestyle, media, sport, ecology, fashion, and cuisine. These new words are coined by making compounds from old terms (bedmate, streetwise) clipping and back-formation (advert, emote) portmanteau (chortle, podcast) eponyms (Biro)and foreign suffixes such as —ati (It: glitterati) —ista (Sp: Guardianista) and —fest (Gr: bookfest).

He has a good chapter on irregularities of spelling and pronunciation, culminating in a review of ‘eggcorns’ – understandable mistakes such as just desserts, free-reign, and baited breath – many of which are so widespread there is a danger of their becoming accepted.

He is a fully committed descriptivist. That is, his job as he sees it is to record the manner in which the English language is used, no matter how much it might change its meanings. Hence the title of the book. He argues that damp squid makes just as much sense as the original damp squib – because we hardly ever use the term squib any more. This might infuriate traditionalists and prescriptive grammarians, and it does neglect to note that a squid can hardly be anything other than damp, since it lives in the sea, so the metaphor loses all its force: it fails to make an imaginative connection between two disparate things.

In fact he takes things even further in his conclusion, where he delivers a vigorous critique of what he calls the ‘language Nazis’ – those people who write to newspapers complaining about the decline of the English language (and are aided and abetted by the BBC).

© Roy Johnson 2008

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Jeremy Butterfield, Damp Squid: The English Language Laid Bare, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008, pp.179, ISBN: 019957409X


Filed Under: Language use Tagged With: Cultural history, English language, Language, Language use, Theory, Writing

Dictionary of English Idioms

January 2, 2010 by Roy Johnson

explanations of familiar phrases and popular sayings

Dictionary of English Idioms. Do you know the origin of the expressions ‘as mad as a hatter’ – ‘to cut the mustard’ – or ‘a mess of pottage ‘? I knew the first one, because it comes from my home town, Stockport in Cheshire UK, where milleners went slightly bonkers from the use of mercury in hat manufacturing. [And if the expression also reminds you of Lewis Carrol, we’re not far from Dewsbury where he was born.]

English IdiomsThis is another of OUP’s cheap and cheerful specialist dictionaries, containing 6,000 idioms, alphabetically arranged by key word, and covering metaphorical phrases, familiar quotations and proverbs, and similes. It provides meanings for well-known idioms such as set the world alight, cost an arm and a leg, once in a blue moon, and many more. A date of origin is often given and many entries are supported by illustrative quotations from sources as varied as the Bible, the Spectator, and the novels of Agatha Christie.

The collection covers expressions from British English (the man on the Clapham omnibus) as well as American English (cut to the chase) and quite a few from Australian English (give someone Bondi). Full of fascinating facts, this dictionary is ideal for anyone with an interest in the origins of words and phrases. Arrangement of words alphabetically by key word means easy browsing.

As a work of reference, it will probably be of most use to someone trying to improve their English, or someone trying to become more intimately acquainted with those parts of a language which cannot be absorbed by knowledge of vocabulary and grammar alone. How else for instance would a foreigner learn the meaning of raining cats and dogs? But ultimately it will be attractive to anyone interested in the origins of the colloquial and quirky byways of the English language.

Dictionary of English Idioms   Buy the book at Amazon UK

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© Roy Johnson 2010


John Ayto, Oxford Dictionary of Idioms, Oxford: Oxford University Press, third edition, 2010, pp.408, ISBN: 019954378X


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Eats, Shoots and Leaves

October 20, 2009 by Roy Johnson

a radical defense of traditional punctuation rules

Who would have thought it! A book on punctuation at the top of the best-seller lists. The title refers to joke about a panda who goes into a cafe, orders a sandwich, then pulls out a gun and fires it. The panda had read an encyclopedia entry on itself which contained the unnecessary comma in Eats, Shoots and Leaves. Lynn Truss’s attitude to punctuation is enthusiastic, robust, and uncompromising, as her subtitle makes clear.

Eats, Shoots and LeavesShe wants you to become angry at the misuse of apostrophes and indignant at misplaced commas. She teaches via anecdote, which is probably why the book is so popular. There are no stuffy grammar lessons here, just accounts of bad punctuation, explanations of why they are wrong, and exhortations to keep up standards.

She likens punctuation to good manners – something which should be almost invisible, but which eases the way for readers. And in fact for all her slightly tongue-in-cheek militancy, she takes a non-pedantic line where there are areas of doubt or where punctuation becomes a matter of taste and style.

She takes you on a lively and entertaining tour of the comma, the semicolon, the apostrophe, the colon, and the full stop. Then it’s on to the piquancies of the exclamation and the question mark.

There are several interesting but mercifully brief detours into the history of punctuation – and I couldn’t help smiling when she confessed that her admiration for Aldus Manutius the elder (1450-1515) ran to being prepared to have his children.

Her style is very amusing and, appropriately enough for a book on language, quite linguistically inventive. She knows how to get close to you as a reader and isn’t scared to take risks.

For all her vigilance however, I think she misunderstands one example of the apostrophe – and the point of the joke it is making. A cartoon showing a building with the sign Illiterate’s Entrance could be using the term ‘illiterate’ as a collective singular. She thinks it should read Illiterates’. But we won’t quibble.

She ends by looking at the chaos of random punctuation which now predominates much of email messaging – and feels apprehensive. But I don’t think she needs to worry. For every hyphen or ellipsis to punctuate a gap in thought and sense, there is a new word or a new linguistic invention to compensate. Language may well be a self-compensating and even self-correcting system after all.

Anyone who is unsure about the basics of punctuation will learn some valuable lessons here, and those who already care will have their feelings and understanding confirmed in a very entertaining manner.

Eats, Shoots and Leaves   Buy the book at Amazon UK

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© Roy Johnson 2009


Lynn Truss, Eats, Shoots & Leaves: The Zero Tolerance Approach to Punctuation, London: Profile Books, 2009, pp.209, ISBN: 0007329067


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Effective Writing and Speaking

July 17, 2009 by Roy Johnson

skills for speaking, writing, and presenting

John Seely is something of a specialist in writing guides to clear, efficient communication skills. This is one of a number of books he has published with Oxford University Press, and it’s a much-expanded version of his earlier Oxford Guide to Writing and Speaking. It covers how to structure a business letter and how to strike the right tone; how to format and follow the protocols of emailing; how to write a persuasive curriculum vitae, structure a job application, and prepare for the interview; how to prepare and deliver a PowerPoint presentation; how to organise and write a report; and how to prepare a press release when dealing with the media. Each chapter follows the same structure.

Effective Writing and SpeakingFirst there’s a summary of its main points; then the guidance is spelled out in short, clear paragraphs and bulleted lists. There are occasional self-assessment exercises; and then comes a numbered list of general guidance notes on the topic. After form, he deals withe the next two important features of efficient communication – audience and context. This involves adjusting your language and tone to suit your readership, plus keeping your subject and your purpose in mind. He also shows you how the same piece of information can be transmitted in a number of different ways.

The next part of the book focuses on the basics of English language – its vocabulary, spelling, grammar, punctuation, and even how it is spoken.

In the final section of the book he deals with writing as a process. This starts from the generation of ideas, goes through planning and writing drafts, then shows you how to revise and edit what you produce. The most valuable lesson which many people can learn is that writing is a process, not something you do at one pass.

If you want something shorter or pitched at a simpler level, try his other books on the same subject — Words, Writing Reports, or The A—Z of Grammar & Punctuation. This one will give you everything you need for everyday practical communication skills.

© Roy Johnson 2005

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John Seely, Oxford Guide to Effective Writing and Speaking, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005, pp.310. ISBN: 0192806130


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Filed Under: Language use, Writing Skills Tagged With: Communication skills, Effective Writing and Speaking, Speaking skills, Writing skills

Gallimaufry

July 15, 2009 by Roy Johnson

a hodgepodge of our vanishing vocabulary

Michael Quinion is a word nerd. He’s an expert on obscure terms, word etymologies, and the origins of strange expressions. His last book Port Out, Starboard Home discusses myths and false explanations for the meanings of well known sayings, and he runs an excellent compilation of lexical back-history at World Wide Words. Gallimaufry is his latest collection of notes on ‘disappearing language’ – terms that are vanishing from common usage for a variety of reasons.

GallimaufrySome go because the object they describe no longer exists (liberty-bodice and sixpence) and some are meanings that disappear because the word is now used to describe something quite different (chaperone was in medieval times a sort of cap.) Mercifully, he splits up his offerings into themed chapters – on food and drink, health and medicine, entertainment and leisure, transport and fashion, then family names and communication.

In explaining the meaning of terms such as lamprey-pie, hog’s pudding, and flummery, he takes you into the realms of medieval cooking practices, the relationship of Latin and French to English linguistic development, and the eating habits of kings and commoners as they struggled to add nutrition and flavour to their diet of boiled wheats and gruel.

In no time this leads in its turn to the worlds of medicine, naval history, and eighteenth century nutrition. It’s unlikely that anybody will need to bring many of these terms back into general circulation, but it’s interesting to realise that spalling-poppy, biting assmart, and alexipharmic contain lexical elements which are still alive and well today, even though we have stopped using the herbal remedies to which they refer.

These are not just terms that have disappeared, but also the remote origins of terms which we still use today. For instance, you would never guess that the term slush fund originated in the mass of semi-liquid fat that floated on the top of boiling up unappetising salt pork on board a ship.

This all passes later into a form of social history when Quinion describes the forms of long-forgotten dances such as the cotillion, the quadrille, and the galliard. He then goes on to explain the distinctions between various nineteenth-century vehicles such as the landau, the barouche, the cabriolet, and the handsome.

It’s a gold mine for people who enjoy both arcane knowledge and the strange linguistic depths of the everyday world. For instance, he discusses old forms of measurement (of the rod, perch, and pole variety) and points out that ell, the old way to measure woollen cloth, gets its length (22-23 inches) as well as its name from the fact that this is the approximate distance from the shoulder to the wrist. The Old English term for the arm is ell, which is why in its turn the place where it bends is called the elbow.

Quinion is certainly a scholar. He gives meticulously drawn sources for his definitions and admits doubt or complete ignorance when supporting evidence is not available. He finishes with a selection of terms which are probably on their way out because of technological change: blotting paper, usherette, gramophone, and bus conductor will probably never be required again, even though they are probably still in the active vocabulary of older people today.

OK – you are either interested in old and possibly obscure words or you’re not. This is a cornucopia for those of us who are not ashamed to be counted amongst the lexical anoraks.

© Roy Johnson 2008

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Michael Quinion, Gallimaufry, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008, pp.288, ISBN: 0199551022


Filed Under: Language use Tagged With: Gallimaufry, Language, Language change, Language use, Reference

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