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Case agreement – how to understand it

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Case agreement – definition

case agreement There must be grammatical logic or case agreement in the links between parts of a sentence.

redbtn This coherence is called ‘case agreement’ or ‘concord’.

Examples

The boy is swimming.
[singular subject, singular verb form]

The boys are swimming.
[plural subject, plural verb form]

Use

redbtn Agreement may be required in tense, number, or case.

redbtn Problems are more likely to occur in writing than in speech.

redbtn NB! To avoid such problems in writing, keep your sentences short.

redbtn If the subject of a sentence is singular, then the verb form must be singular as well:

The shop [singular] opens at nine o’clock.
On Thursdays the shops [plural] open late.

redbtn Sometimes confusion occurs because a statement begins in the singular but then drifts into the plural:

wrong
It can be argued that a person has the right to know when they are dying.

redbtn The easiest solution to this problem is to make the subject plural and its verb plural as well:

correct
It can be argued that people have the right to know when they are dying.

redbtn Sometimes a singular noun is used to denote a plural or a collective thing – such as ‘government’ or ‘parliament’.

redbtn Either the singular or the plural verb form may be used – but the important thing is to be consistent.

wrong
The government prefers to let matters rest, but events may make them change their minds.

correct
The government prefers to let matters rest, but events may make it change its mind.

correct
The government prefer to let matters rest, but events may make them change their minds.

redbtn Agreement is necessary in English because the language is ‘uninflected’.

redbtn That is, most words are not given separate endings to indicate which part of the statement they represent.

redbtn English relies very heavily on grammatical rules and syntax [word order] to make sense.

redbtn [In some languages — classical Latin, for instance — word order is not important.]

Self-assessment quiz follows >>>

© Roy Johnson 2003

English Language 3.0 program
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Chambers Dictionary

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popular and wide-ranging, one-volume dictionary

Did you know that Chambers Dictionary is the official reference dictionary for UK Scrabble competitions? And you can see why. It packs in more words, plus lots of unusual, archaic, and esoteric terms, than any other dictionary of its size. This edition combines the long-established virtues of its predecessors with a modern design and updated content. It offers coverage of English vocabulary, ranging from rare and archaic words to the latest slang and technical terms.

Chambers DictionaryIt also has an introductory essay on the history of English language, a note on American English, rules of English spelling, plus appendices giving the books of the Bible, and the works of Shakespeare. It also includes chemical elements, and phrases and quotations from Latin, Greek and modern foreign languages. What makes this dictionary really distinctive however is that it packs a huge number of words into the available space. It does this by sacrificing long encyclopedic entries and offering instead multiple variants.

It’s particularly popular with crossword puzzle, Scrabble, and word game addicts – mainly because it lists so many unusual words. Some people even prefer it to the popular Collins and the venerable Oxford dictionaries.

The definitions given can be quite quirky and entertaining. For instance, the term eclair is defined as a cake ‘long in shape, but short in duration’.

The text is easy to read, because Chambers follow the now-conventional practice of putting the headword in bold sans-serif type. This stands out well from the definitions which follow, which are set in a serifed font. It looks a bit like this:

abscind ab-sind, vt to cut off. —n abscissa also absciss or abscisse (ab’sis) the intercept between a fixed point and the foot of an ordinate; the x-co-ordinate in analytic geometry; — pl abscissae (ab-sisë or -sis’i), absciss’as or ab’scisses. —n abscission (-sizh’en) an act of cutting off, or the state of being cut off; a figure of speech in which words demanded by the sense are left unsaid, the speaker stopping short suddenly (rhetoric); organised shedding of a part (eg a leaf or fruit) (bot); liberation of a fungal spore by breakdown of part of its stalk (bot). — absciss layer or abscission layer (bot) a layer of parenchymatous cells through which a leaf, branch or bark scale separates off. [L abscindere, abscissum to cut off, from ab from, and scindere to cut]

The latest edition contains over 300,000 definitions, and as other reviewers have pointed out, it should not be confused with the Chambers 21st Century Dictionary. This one is much better and covers a far wider range.

© Roy Johnson 2011

Chambers Dictionary   Buy the book at Amazon UK

Chambers Dictionary   Buy the book at Amazon US

Chambers Dictionary, London: Chambers, 12th edition 2011, pp.1920, ISBN: 055010237X

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Clauses – how to understand them

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Clauses – definition

clauses Clauses are parts of a sentence which make sense independently because they contain a finite verb.

redbtn There are main clauses and subordinate clauses.

Examples

redbtn There are two clauses in this sentence:

Come in, put your coat on that chair, and sit down.

redbtn The main clause is ‘Come in … and sit down.’

redbtn The subordinate clause is ‘put your coat on that chair’.

Use

redbtn It is natural for language to structure itself into manageable parts which make complete sense in themselves.

redbtn As speakers we create comprehensible clauses spontaneously and automatically.

redbtn Written language can have a greater complexity of clauses than speech within sentences.

redbtn This is because writing can be reconsidered by the reader at any time and at any speed.

redbtn Speech on the other hand must be taken in immediately by the listener.

redbtn NB! The difference between a clause and a phrase is that a phrase does not contain a finite verb.

redbtn The term ‘clause’ belongs to the discipline of descriptive grammar. This approach is very traditional and has been taught in grammar schools for the past few hundred years. It is still considered useful as a term by which to identify the components of a sentence.

redbtn Descriptive grammar sets out with a preconceived blueprint of sentence structure and attempts to force all utterances into it.

redbtn Recently, the term was introduced into the National Curriculum for the teaching of English in schools. This states:

‘pupils should be given opportunities to develop their understanding of the grammar of complex sentences, including clauses and phrases’

redbtn This development illustrates a return to old conventions which has been brought about by conservative values. It is also based on the belief that standards of literacy have been falling due to the lack of basic grammar teaching.

redbtn ‘Transformational Grammar’, pioneered by the American linguist Noam Chomsky, is an alternative and more functional approach to understanding grammar. This discipline focuses on the relationship and function of parts in an utterance and seeks to accommodate an infinite variety of expression and usage.

redbtn For instance, the sentence John is easy to please is identical in structure to the sentence John is eager to please. In terms of meaning however, the two utterances are quite different. This example demonstrates that there is more to understanding grammar than being able to spot clauses.

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© Roy Johnson 2003

English Language 3.0 program
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Cliches – how to recognise them

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Cliches – definition

cliches Cliches are hackneyed phrases or expressions.

redbtn The phrases might once have been fresh or striking, but they have become tired through over-use.

Examples

“He was over the moon about that goal.”
“Yes please. I don’t mind if I do.”
“Far be it from me…”
“I would be the last person to cast aspersions.”
We will leave leave no stone unturned in our search.

Use

redbtn Clichés are often used unconsciously in casual speech.

redbtn They usually suggest mental laziness or the lack of original thought.

redbtn They should be avoided in writing.

redbtn NB! Beware. Cliché may sometimes be used consciously for ironic effect.

redbtn Clichés circulate in the spoken language very readily, because they save people having to think.

redbtn When written down, they appear even more tired and vacuous than when spoken.

redbtn Traditional examples are expressions such as it takes the biscuit, back to square one and a taste of his own medicine.

redbtn Current favourites (in the UK) include the bottom line is …, a whole different ball game, living in the real world, a level playing field, and moving the goalposts.

redbtn Clichés present a temptation, because they often seem to be just what is required to make an effect. They do the trick. They hit the nail on the head. They are just what the doctor ordered. [See what I mean?]

redbtn Here is a stunning compilation, taken from a provincial newspaper. The example is genuine, but the names have been changed to protect the innocent. [That’s a deliberate example!]

By their very nature cabarets tend to be a bit of a hit and miss affair. And Manchester’s own ‘Downtown Cabaret’ is ample proof of that. When it was good it was very good, and when it was bad it was awful. Holding this curate’s egg together was John Beswick acting as compere and keeping the hotchpotch of sketches and songs running along smoothly. And his professionalism shone through as he kept his hand on the tiller and steered the shown through a difficult audience with his own brand of witticism. Local playwright Alan Chivers had previously worked like a Trojan and managed to marshal the talents of a bevy of Manchester’s rising stars.

redbtn It isn’t always easy to see where an idiomatic expression ends and a cliché begins.

redbtn The essential difference between them is that an idiom is not being offered as original thought. We say ‘fish and chips’ because people do not normally say ‘chips and fish’ (because it’s more difficult to say). But anybody who says he’s ‘over the moon’ about something has chosen the expression, no doubt thinking that it’s impressive.

redbtn A vogue word is very close to the cliché. This is an item of vocabulary whose meaning is becoming blurred, distorted, or inflated [that is, emptied] through over-use.

redbtn The term ‘vogue’ implies that the word is currently fashionable.

  • That’s a fantastic dress! [very nice]
  • We’re in a war situation. [at war]
  • It’s a brilliant novel. [interesting]
  • She’ll get paranoid about it. [become worried]
  • What a fabulous car! [remarkable]

redbtn The use of these terms is very common in everyday speech. They should be avoided in formal writing.

Self-assessment quiz follows >>>

© Roy Johnson 2003

English Language 3.0 program
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Collins Dictionary and Thesaurus

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dictionary and thesaurus – two books in one

The Collins Dictionary and Thesaurus (In One Volume) was first produced in 1987.  My copy is the 1990 reprint and like all good dictionaries it is now falling apart, because it has stopped me from falling apart in the decade since I received it as a gift from my wife.  Even though I have the advantage of spellcheck and thesaurus on computer, The Collins Dictionary and Thesaurus is – and will remain – on my desk.  Why do I like it so much?  Why is it such a popular dictionary?

Dictionary and ThesaurusWhen it came out, it was the first time that a dictionary and thesaurus had been put together in this format.  Like all great concepts, it was essentially a simple idea – a general purpose dictionary and thesaurus arranged so that matching relevant material was printed on the same page.  If you want to check the spelling and meaning of concubine, you look at the top half of the page, then check out the lower thesaurus half for a range of alternative words.

This is just very convenient, and it makes the book doubly useful. The arrangement of the print and the division of the pages is very attractive to the eye and easy to read – which is a godsend for people who have to work late to deliver deadlines.  The alphabetical ordering is thumb indexed with the letters printed in gold on a black background. The aesthetic qualities of the Collins Dictionary and Thesaurus are excellent to the last detail, and this shows a design awareness that is in tune with the people most likely to use it. The book which stares up at me from the desk looks good as well as having first-rate content.

There are 71,000 dictionary references and a quarter of a million thesaurus synonyms in this volume, all gathered from the larger Collins English Dictionary and New Collins Thesaurus.  I believe a good dictionary gives a feel for the linguistic zeitgeist of the time in which it was produced.  Open this volume at any page and you’ll be hit by the vibrant choice of words – hatchet man, roly-poly, parodist, polish off.  Look in the Thesaurus – what synonyms does it give for Police? Boys In Blue, Fuzz, Old Bill, The Law. It’s plain to see that this volume is aimed at being more than a language tool: it’s also a good read.

This strength, the volume’s readability, can also be perceived as a weakness.  It’s hard to open the book, get the word you immediately need, and then shut it and move on. I invariably, end up skimming and scanning the rest of the page, flicking through, opening at random and seeing what jumps off the page.  This is great fun, but it can be a distraction when there’s a deadline to meet.

The definitions of words are plainly and exactly expressed throughout. Cannelloni are ‘tubular pieces of pasta filled with meat or cheese’. The synonyms are often poetic, evocations of the many spirits resident within a single word.  Dig yields break up, burrow, delve, excavate, gouge, grub, hoe, hollow out, mine.

In his introduction to A Dictionary Of The English Language, Samuel Johnson wrote that those who engaged in the business of writing dictionaries were ‘exposed to censure without hope of praise’.  Or as we might call it the ‘Hiding to Nothing’ syndrome. Personally, I can’t praise the managing editor William T McLeod and his team enough.  They have produced a book that would be my choice of reading matter if I was stranded on a desert island – a popular, attractive, user-friendly and entertaining celebration of language.

© Mark Roberts 2011

Collins Dictionary and Thesaurus   Buy the book at Amazon UK

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The Collins Dictionary and Thesaurus In One Volume, London: Collins, 5th edition 2011, pp.1344, ISBN: 0007429029

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Collins Electronic Dictionary

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popular electronic talking dictionary

Dictionary owners have been quicker than most publishers to exploit the commercial possibilities of their databases. This software offers a talking dictionary containing 80,000 words. It comes with a set of tools for speedy and accurate look-up of any words or phrases on your computer. The information about each item is fairly basic, but pronunciation using the voices of professional native speakers is used in the audio recordings.

Collins Electronic DictionaryThe dictionary can be used with any other computer application to get the definition and correct spelling of words – as well as for listening to a reading of each entry. It’s part of a series that uses the complete text of printed dictionaries, adapted so that they sit on a corner of your screen while you’re working.

It’s designed for non-native English users, but the adaptation to computer has been so well thought out that native English speakers who want more than a spell checker will also find it useful. One good feature is that long entries have their own scroll button, so that you can read each entry without enlarging the dictionary screen or losing your place.

If you encounter a word in a definition you don’t understand, you simply right click on it and jump to its definition; then a single click takes you back to the original entry. Bookmarks can be used for more complex cross-referencing.

Definitions can be transferred to the main screen via the clipboard or drag and drop, and text can also be imported into the dictionary where each word will automatically be defined. You can hear all headwords in standard English pronunciation at a single click. Learners can then practice their pronunciation, comparing it with the original.

There’s also a system of entertaining and dynamic exercises which enables you to not only memorize the words you need, but also type them correctly. You can also monitor your progress and displayed with helpful graphics.

© Roy Johnson 2000

Collins Electronic Dictionary   Buy the CD at Amazon UK

Collins Electronic Dictionary   Buy the CD at Amazon US

Intense Language Office / Collins Talking Dictionary on CD-Rom; HarperCollins Publishers 1995 / Intense Educational Ltd 2002. ISBN: 1903397154

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Collins French-English Dictionary

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talking dictionary dual-language software

Don’t be misled by the title of this program. It’s is two books in one – a French-English dictionary as well as an English-French. And it’s very easy to switch between the two. The program installs effortlessly and takes up 44MB of hard disk space. In terms of sheer vocabulary there are over 80,000 words and phrases, and over 120,000 translations. It can be used with any other computer application to translate words and phrases, as well as for listening to the pronunciation of French and English words.

Collins French-English DictionaryThe word-base comes from the Collins paper dictionary, and you can easily add other dictionaries into the same basic program. There’s a talk-through introduction explaining all these functions – done by a very fruity-voiced woman, who even started playing jazz piano part way through. Each entry has a sound file attached giving the correct pronunciation. The sound files can either be run from the CD or copied permanently onto your hard drive. If the program reads the sound files off the CD, there’s a teensy time-lag first time you click on a word, but after that each successive selection plays instantly.

The program can sit in a small window in the corner of your screen, so you can keep it open unobtrusively whilst working on another document. I liked the fact that you can locate a term easily, simply by typing the first few letters into a dialogue box.

You can also work with the dictionary in condensed or expanded mode – which means that less or more details are shown for each entry. And you can test your grasp of the language as you go along with either a shooting gallery exercise or a crossword.

The AudioPad feature gives you the chance to practise your speaking skills with the help of professionals. You compare your pronunciation with the expert speaker, and see the result in sound waves on screen.

There’s a full HELP system which explains how to use and configure the program. It also lists keyboard shortcuts. Useful tips, answers to frequently asked questions, and database updates are available at the publisher’s web site.

Who is it for? I would say beginners to intermediate, as well as professional and business users. I’ve been using it to brush up my restaurant-level French skills, so that I can get closer to the goodies of Provencal gastronomy. And it works.

© Roy Johnson 2005

Collins French-English Talking Dictionary   Buy the CD at Amazon UK

Collins French-English Talking Dictionary   Buy the CD at Amazon US

Collins Talking French-English Dictionary, Intense Educational, 2004, CD-ROM

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Collins Spanish-English Dictionary

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dual-language talking dictionary

Don’t be misled by the title of this program. It’s is two dictionaries in one – a Spanish-English dictionary as well as English-Spanish. And it’s very easy to switch between the two. The program installs effortlessly and takes up 44MB of hard disk space. In terms of sheer vocabulary there are over 80,000 words and phrases, and over 120,000 translations. The dictionary can be used with any other computer application to translate words and phrases, as well as for listening to the correct pronunciation of Spanish and English words.

Spanish-English DictionaryThe dictionary word-base comes from the Collins paper dictionary, and you can easily add other dictionaries into the same basic program. There’s a talk-through introduction explaining all these functions – done by a very fruity-voiced woman, who even started playing jazz piano part way through.

Each entry has a sound file attached giving the correct pronunciation. The sound files can either be run from the CD or copied permanently onto your hard drive. If the program reads the sound files off the CD, there’s a teensy time-lag first time you click on a word, but after that each successive selection plays instantly.

The program can sit in a small window in the corner of your screen, so you can keep it open unobtrusively whilst working on another document. I liked the fact that you can locate a term easily, simply by typing the first few letters into a dialogue box.

You can also work with the dictionary in condensed or expanded mode – which means that less or more details are shown for each entry. And you can test your grasp of the language as you go along with either a shooting gallery exercise or a crossword.

The AudioPad feature gives you the chance to practise your speaking skills with the help of professionals. You compare your pronunciation with the expert speaker, and see the result in sound waves on screen.

There’s a full HELP system which explains how to use and configure the program. It also lists keyboard shortcuts. Useful tips, answers to frequently asked questions, and database updates are available at the publisher’s web site.

It recognises the importance of distinctions between European and Latin-American usages, and each definition comes with a sign as to whether it is used in Spain or in the Americas.

Who is it for? I would say beginners to intermediate, as well as professional and business users. I’ve been using it to brush up my restaurant-level Spanish skills, so that I can get closer to the goodies of Andalucian gastronomy. And it works.

© Roy Johnson 2004

Collins Spanish-English Dictionary   Buy the book at Amazon UK

Collins Spanish-English Dictionary   Buy the book at Amazon US

Collins Talking Spanish-English Dictionary, Intense Educational, 2004, CD-ROM

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Colons – how to use them

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Colons – definition

colons Colons are used to introduce strong pauses within sentences.

redbtn The colon is the longest pause short of a full stop.

Examples

redbtn Colons are used to introduce lists:

The car has a number of optional extras: sun roof, tinted windows, rear seat belts, and electrically operated wing mirrors.

redbtn The colon separates two clauses which could stand alone as separate sentences, but which are linked by some relationship in meaning:

My brother likes oranges: my sister hates them.

redbtn The colon is also used before a long quotation or a speech:

Speaking at Caesar’s funeral, Anthony addresses the crowd: “Friends, Romans, countrymen …”

redbtn It is also used before a clause which explains the previous statement:

The school is highly regarded: academic standards are high, the staff are pleasant, and the students enjoy going there.

Use

redbtn The colon can be used to provide emphasis, or to create dramatic effect:

There can be only one reason for this problem: his total incompetence.

redbtn It is also used at the end of a statement which is followed by an illustration:

The vase contains beautiful flowers: roses, tulips, and daffodils.

redbtn NB! The colon followed by a dash (: —) is never necessary. The colon alone is sufficient, even before a list.

redbtn Notice that the items which follow a list are punctuated with commas if they are a succession of individual words.

You will need four ingredients: flour, butter, milk, and sugar.

redbtn If the items in the list contain clauses or phrases these may be punctuated with semicolons:

You will need the following materials: some scrap paper; a pen, preferably blue or black; some envelopes; and some good, white, unlined writing paper.

redbtn The colon requires careful handling. If you are in any doubt, use separate sentences.

redbtn The colon is also used between the title and the sub-title of a book:

Magical Realism: Latin-American fiction today.

Self-assessment quiz follows >>>

© Roy Johnson 2003

English Language 3.0 program
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Commas – how to use them

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Commas – definition

commas Commas are used to show slight pauses in a sentence.

redbtn Commas are the lightest marks of punctuation.

Examples

He will never do it, whatever he says.
She bought some butter, a pint of milk, and some jam.
Cars should turn left here, whilst vans should turn right.

Use

redbtn The comma is used to separate words, clauses, or phrases in a sentence.

redbtn It is used to help clarify the sense of statements and to prevent ambiguity.
redbtn It is also used to separate the items in lists.

redbtn NB! Use commas to clarify meaning. Don’t scatter them around like confetti.

redbtn The comma is used to separate two clauses when the first is not closely associated with the second:

She is a famous singer, whilst her husband remains unknown.

redbtn It is used to introduce a pause where the eye might otherwise continue and mistake the sense of what is written:

In the valley below, the villages looked small.

redbtn It is used to separate a sequence of adjectives which qualify a noun:

He was an arrogant, pompous fellow.

redbtn However, when the adjectives are of a different order or type, no comma is necessary:

He was a distinguished foreign visitor.

redbtn The comma is used to mark the start and finish of a parenthetical phrase within a sentence:

I am quite sure, despite my reservations, that he’s the best man for the job.

redbtn A very common use for the comma is to separate the items in a list:

The box contained a book, some pencils, and a knife.

redbtn Opinions differ on the need for the final comma in such examples. If the items are all of the same kind, it can usually be omitted. If they are not, it is usually safer to retain the comma.

Self-assessment quiz follows >>>

© Roy Johnson 2003

English Language 3.0 program
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