Archives for 2009

Student: James Higginson
Course: An Introduction to the Internet

What is the Internet?

There are many different definitions of the Internet and many people
often confuse the Internet with some of the applications, which run on it, such as E-Mail, World Wide Web and File Transfer Protocol (FTP).

So what is the Internet? In general terms, the Internet is a system of
computer networks, a network or networks that allow users of the Internet to exchange information, files or even talk directly to users of other computers around the world, through the use of set protocols.

To give you an indication of the size of the Internet, the following map
shows the number of hosts on the Internet throughout the world as at July 1999.

Copyright © 1999 MIDAS

Student: James Higginson
Course: An Introduction to the Internet

The Internet was not an overnight development, it has evolved over thirty years and can be traced back to the first computer networking projects, the key developments & personalities of which will be explained in this section.

Following the launch of Sputnik (the first artificial earth satellite) by the USSR in 1957, the US Department of Defense formed the Advanced Projects Research Agency (ARPA) to establish a lead in world technology for the USA.

The first head of this organisation was J.C.R. Licklider, who wrote a series of memos in 1962 discussing his ideas of a “Galactic Network”, a global set of computers that were interconnected and allowed users to access data and programs from any site. He promoted his networking theory to his successors at ARPA, Ivan Sutherland, Bob Taylor and Lawrence G Roberts.

In 1965, Lawrence Roberts directly connected a TX-2 computer at MIT in Massachusetts to a Q-32 computer in California via a dedicated phone line. This experiment was the first-ever Wide Area Network (WAN), (the first Local Area Network (LAN) was developed some years later by Bob Metcalfe at Xerox PARC, using the Ethernet protocol, which is probably the dominant network technology on today’s Internet).

The experiment proved that time-sharing computers could network but it also proved that the circuit switching was not adequate and he approached ARPA to develop the computer network concept further. The result was his plan for the ARPANET, a number of individual computers connected by leased lines using packet switching. Roberts had been convinced on the theory of using packet switching by Leonard Kleinrock, who wrote the first paper on packet-switching theory in 1961, although three independent bodies worked on this concept, the National Physical Laboratory (NPL), RAND and MIT.

The first four nodes of ARPANET were at UCLA, Stanford Research Institute, UC Santa Barbara and University of Utah and these formed the initial ARPANET in 1969. The Network Working Group, headed by Steve Crocker, finished the initial ARPANET Host-to-Host protocol in 1970 which was called the Network Control Protocol (NCP). The implementation of this protocol enabled the network users to develop applications.

Bob Kahn, who had been working at Bolt Beranek & Newman (BBN), the company which had built the Interface Message Processors (IMPs) of the ARPANET, posed the problem of how computers could interwork without any knowledge of the characteristics of the underlying networks as there were more than one packet switched network. Bob Kahn employed the skills of Vint Cerf (previously involved in the design of NCP and the measurement of ARPANET) to establish a solution to getting these to “internetwork”. They concluded that the following key features were needed:

• Using computers as gateways or routers between different networks
• Making hosts responsible for end-to-end transmission of packets together with error correction and retransmission if necessary
• Devising the protocols necessary to make the first two points happen

In 1974 Bob Kahn and Vint Cerf published “A Protocol for Packet Network Interconnection” which specified the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). This new protocol, TCP, was eventually split into Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) to make it even more efficient. In the early 1980s, TCP/IP was established as the protocols on the ARPANET, replacing the NCP.

Through the 1980’s ARPANET was revised, and new networks were established including NSFNET, but TCP/IP was essential to them all. More and more networks have interconnected to form the Internet. Vint Cerf has stated in an online interview:

“Today, there are an unknown number of networks interconnected to form the Internet – certainly in excess of 200,000 around the world and likely more than that. There are at least 60 million computers on the Internet and possibly as many as 200 Million.”

As the Internet and its capabilities has developed, more protocols have been added in a layered approach in addition to TCP/IP, such as the Domain Name System (DNS), the email protocols POP3, IMAP, and SMTP) and the World Wide Web protocols (HTTP, HTML, and XML).

One of the keys to the rapid growth of the Internet has been the availability of basic documents and specifications of the protocols. These were available as Requests for Comments (RFCs). Jon Postel acted as the RFC Editor; in addition to his role as director of the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority, a non-profit body that administers the required protocol number assignments.

It could be claimed that J.C.R. Licklider was a forefather of the Internet, as his ideas of a “Galactic Network” do have a resemblance to the current Internet. He promoted the theories of networking to his successors at ARPA, without whose funding the development of ARPANET and hence Internet could be called into question.

Robert Kahn was responsible for the system design of the ARPANET whilst at Bolt Beranek and Newman (BBN). After joining ARPA, he conceived the idea of open-architecture networking, the underlying principle of the Internet, which led him to co-develop the protocols required to make the Internet a reality, namely TCP/IP.

Through working for Leonard Kleinrock, Vint Cerf helped to develop the host level protocols of the ARPANET and then on software for the Network Measurement Centre, which measured the performance of the ARPANET. His work led him to work with Robert Kahn in co-developing the protocols, TCP/IP.

Jon Postel is often touted as a father of the Internet. Indeed, he had a significant part to play in the development of the Internet, through his control of the Requests for Comments and founder of the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority.

For the Internet to exist there had to be a method of embracing open-architecture networking, this was only possible through the introduction of TCP/IP. I therefore believe that Robert Kahn and Vint Cerf have the strongest claims to be called father(s) of the Internet, In fact Vint Cerf maybe more so, he has continued to nurture and promote the Internet (as any father would do) through his roles as President of the Internet Society (the closest thing the Internet has to a governing body), Chairman of the Internet Societal Task Force and his work at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory to design an interplanetary Internet. Kahn and Cerf received the U.S. National Medal of Technology from President Clinton in December 1997, for founding and developing the Internet.

However, if we the use concept of Systems Thinking, i.e. looking at the whole, then the development of the Internet has relied on more than just the development of TCP/IP, developments such as packet-switching were vital, the freedom of information provided by Jon Postel enabled rapid growth, and support of Government in providing an envirnoment & funding for it to have been developed. In fact, Vice President of USA, Al Gore, has even claimed his role:

"During my service in the Unites States Congress,
I took the initiative in creating the Internet"

The Internet may have two father figures in Vint Cerf and Robert Kahn but there are many more who have a valid claim to its birth. The media will always look for an inventor or creator, but in this instance there is a whole family who are responsible for the fatherhood of the Internet.

Student: James Higginson
Course: An Introduction to the Internet

Click HERE to view my plan for this assignment

Katie Hafner, Matthew Lyon, Where Wizards stay up late – Touchstone Publications – 1998

Katz, John, “Mourning the Father of the Internet” – 27/10/98 –
(visited 30 August 2000)

Rodriguez, Karen, “Plenty deserve credit as ‘father’ of the Internet” – 25/10/99
http://www.bizjournals.com/sanjose/stories/1999/10/25/newscolumn2.html
(visited 30 August 2000)

The Corporation for National Research Initiatives, “Robert E Kahn biography” – 18/08/00
<http://www.cnri.reston.va.us/bios/kahn.html>
(visited 30 August 2000)

Worldcom, “Vinton G Cerf – Personal Prospective”
(visited 30 August 2000)

The Internet Engineering Task Force
<http://www.itef.org>

Vint Cerf & Robert Kahn, “A Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication” – May 1974 –
(visited 30 August 2000)

The Internet Society (ISOC)
<http://www.isoc.org>

Robert Hobbes’ Zakon, “Hobbes’ Internet Timeline v5.1” – 01/07/00
(visited 30 August 2000)

Worldcom, “Cerfs Up: Internet History”
(visited 30 August 2000)

Whatis.com
<http://www.whatis.com>

Open University – T171 Course Material
<http://www.open.ac.uk>

N.B. I did email Vint Cerf at http://www.worldcom.com to find out if he is comfortable with the title “father of the Internet”. Unfortunately, as of 01/09/2000, I have not received a reply.

Tutor’s note: Vint Cerf’s very generous reply arrived a few days after the assignment went into the Open University’s inflexible assessment system – but I had already given the student extra points for this initiative. Both of us were justified when Vint Cerf’s assessment turned out to be almost identical to the ‘conclusion’ of the assignment.

Essay plan as a mind map