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grammar, language use, rules and conventions

grammar, language use, rules and conventions

A-Z of Grammar and Punctuation

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pocket guide to the basics of English language

Most people are a bit frightened of grammar and punctuation – with some reason, because both can be very complex issues. Fortunately, anybody who can speak their own language is already in possession of all the tools they need for using it correctly. This isn’t to say that we don’t need a little help from time to time. And that’s where guides like this one come in useful. John Seely starts off with a brief overview of English sentence structure, and how the parts relate to each other. He explains all the main elements of speech, and uses everyday examples as illustrations. Then it’s on to the main substance of the book, which starts at abbreviations and runs via main clause to who’s/whose and will/shall. In between, he covers all the main issues which crop up time and again as problems for everyday users of English.

Grammar and PunctuationHow do you punctuate lists of terms? How can you avoid the split infinitive? What is the rule for using apostrophes? What is the difference between can and may? What’s the correct way to show speech in writing? Is between you and me correct English? Answer: yes it is.

He uses a minimum of jargon, and makes all his explanations as succinct as possible. I particularly liked one visual feature of this book. Longer topics, such as paragraphs and prefixes are given their own shaded boxes, and somehow this makes both the topic and its surrounding items easier to read.

This book will be ideal if you want a reference offering quick simple explanations, but you could also use it as an introduction to a more in-depth study of the subject.

This is a new series from OUP – a pocketbook guides on the basics of writing and language skills. They’re small, cheap, cheerful, and compact, yet authoritative – the sort of thing which I imagine would be ideal for students or the average person-in-the-street who wants to take on the first principles of improving their language skills.

© Roy Johnson 2009

A-Z of Grammar and Punctuation   Buy the book at Amazon UK

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John Seely, Oxford A—Z of Grammar and Punctuation, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2nd edition 2009, pp.192, ISBN: 0199564671

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Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language

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history, grammar, and use of world’s languages

If you take a close interest in language, a dictionary alone is sometimes not enough. You occasionally need a book like this which can explain basics. It isn’t an encyclopaedia in the normal sense: it’s a very readable series of articles, essays, definitions, tables, maps and pictures on every conceivable aspect of languages from around the world. In fact it’s the only reference book of its kind I’ve ever read all the way through, from start to finish. David Crystal has devoted his life to the study of language, and of all his many books on the subject, his Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language is the one to which I return most often.

Encyclopedia of Language It’s a wonderful compendium of easily accessible information on all aspects of language, and there are gems of information on every page. It is written in a lively, non-pedantic style, and is profusely illustrated in such a way as to reinforce our understanding and make it more interesting.

He offers a very readable and humane way to introduce anyone to the wonders and mysteries of human language. He covers topics such as the origins and diversity of languages; the differences between the spoken and the written word; phonetics, semantics, and stylistics; the contentious issues of pronunciation, accent, dialect, and slang; alphabets, dictionaries, and thesauri; language acquisition and language change; grammar, spelling systems, and graphology. If it’s remotely connected with language, you will find it here – explained in a straightforward and often quite amusing manner.

I’ve used this book regularly ever since it first appeared. In fact it oscillates between office and home. The first version appeared in 1987, but you should make sure you get the latest second edition, because David Crystal has added material which takes into account the linguistic changes wrought in the decade since the original’s inception. It also includes a comprehensive glossary of terms and long lists of suggestions for further reading. There’s everything here you will need until you are ready to study language at quite an advanced level.

© Roy Johnson 2010

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David Crystal, The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 3rd edn 2010, pp.524, ISBN: 0521736501

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Grammar for Teachers

by

essential guide to how English language works

The UK government’s latest policy on English teaching insists that it should be presented ‘across the curriculum’. What this means is that teachers of subjects other than English have to focus the language of their practice as part of normal classroom teaching and learning. This can leave teachers of chemistry, home economics, and physical education feeling rather exposed where formal grammar is concerned. John Seely’s latest book to the rescue! It is aimed at teachers in primary and secondary schools, and will also be useful for those preparing to teach modern foreign languages and English as an additional or foreign language.

Grammar for TeachersAnd he’s well qualified for the job of explaining complex issues. His previous books include Words, The A-Z of Grammar and Punctuation, Effective Writing and Speaking, and Writing Reports.

These are all very popular books which introduce linguistic facets of everyday life in a straightforward manner. This one follows the same pattern. He explains how sentences are built up from subject, verb, and object (Elephants like grass) but puts his emphasis on recognising clause patterns. Then comes an explanation of different types of noun (proper, countable, uncountable) adjectives, verbs, adverbs, and all the other common parts of speech.

In keeping with all the normal rigour of language studies, nothing is examined beyond the length of a single sentence, and his explanations are all as simple and clear as possible. Despite this, there’s still quite a lot of grammatical jargon to take on board (clause elements, prepositional phrases, and modal auxiliaries).

A lot of what he offers is a common sense approach to explaining the categories of grammar – that is, what function a word is performing in any given statement. For instance, work can be a verb or a noun, depending on the context in which it is being used.

The book is in three parts. The first offers basic definitions and explanations; the second goes into more detail; and the third is a big glossary which explains all the technical terms used throughout the book. It also includes other terms that may be be particularly useful for teachers of modern foreign languages. There’s also an appendix explaining what’s required of teachers implementing the literacy strategy in primary schools.

© Roy Johnson 2007

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John Seely, Grammar for Teachers, Oxpecker Press, 2007, pp.172, ISBN: 095534512X

Oxford A-Z of English Usage

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short guide to intermediate language skills

Do you know the past tense of the verb to dive? Is it dived or dove? Don’t worry – most other native English speakers wouldn’t know either. The same is true of the verb to dream. Is it dreamed or dreamt? That’s slightly less of a worry – because both options are correct. This guide offers straightforward, up-to-date guidance on questions of English usage, all affecting the language we choose.

Oxford A-Z of English Usage Common confusions such as uninterested and disinterested are explained, differences between British and American practice are highlighted, and it takes a realistic attitude towards famous examples such as splitting infinitives, ending a sentence with a preposition, and when it is correct to say you and me or you and I.

There are highlighted mini-essays on issues such as case agreement, Latin plurals, and the endlessly vexed issue of -ise and -ize. Editor Jeremy Butterfield also deals with issues for writers, such as how to punctuate bulleted lists.

There’s a strong element of political correctness at work here in definitions to do with race, colour, and disability, yet he doesn’t offer alternatives to the contractions BC and AD, and he suggests that the equivalent of African-American in the UK is black, which some people might challenge.

There’s an interesting section on what he calls ‘electronic English’, and he does his best to reveal folk etymologies – explaining where and why an expression has become distorted and replaced the original – as in slight of hand, which has successfully transplanted the original sleight of hand.

He takes the trouble to distinguish terms which are often confused in English because their spellings are so similar, and they are very often pronounced almost identically – such as discrete and discreet. And he unravels words which are often mistaken for each other – such as blatant and flagrant.

I would say that this is a book for intermediate to advanced users of English – writers, editors, and students who want to make an effort to get things right. It’s the latest addition to a series which includes Oxford A-Z of Grammar and Punctuation, Oxford A-Z of Spelling, and the Oxford Guide to Plain English – all of which have been very successful.

© Roy Johnson 2007

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Jeremy Butterfield, Oxford A—Z of English Usage, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007, pp.172, ISBN: 0199231532

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Oxford Guide to Plain English

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how to simplify and clarify your writing

This is a new series from OUP – pocketbook guides on the basics of writing and language skills. They’re small, cheap, cheerful, and compact, yet authoritative – the sort of thing which I imagine would be ideal for students or the average person-in-the-street who wants to take on the first principles of improving their language skills. Oxford Guide to Plain English is written by the research director of the Plain Language Commission.

Plain EnglishIt’s presented in a lively and professional manner, and Martin Cutts uses so many real-life examples you know he’s speaking from deeply-felt practical experience. He offers quick tips for creating a clearer style, better grammar, punctuation, and layout. He explains how to avoid jargon and legalese, and how to use plain English instead. And he has no patience with sloppy communication. For instance, have you ever received an official letter like the example he quotes from the DVLA?

I again return your application for renewal of road fund licence and reiterate the correct amount is £130. I have enclosed a photocopy of your original document you will notice it clearly datestamped 2nd December, some two days after Budget day.

Four mistakes in forty-three words is not bad going for a government [in the UK] which claims it is committed to increased efficiency and clarity of communication!

He shows you how to avoid this sort of thing – and how to replace mistakes with clear meaning. There are hundreds of real examples to show how it’s done, including ‘before’ and ‘after’ examples.

There’s a good list of contemporary cliches and expressions to avoid, including the Plain English expressions which can quite easily replace them.

The basic information is very sound. Sentences twenty words or less; plain words rather than elaborate vocabulary; vigorous and active verbs rather than the passive voice; bulleted lists to explain multiple points of argument; strict but minimalist punctuation; planning as an indispensable tool to good structure; and even avoiding too many grammatical rules.

It even includes advice on writing effective emails, and as an advocate of good spatial design in written communication, I was pleased to see that there was a whole section devoted to good layout.

Good value; good advice; and good format if you want something cheap and cheerful as a start-up or a pocket reference.

© Roy Johnson 2009

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Martin Cutts, Oxford Guide to Plain English, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 3rd edition 2009, pp. 272, ISBN: 0199558507

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Oxford Modern English Grammar

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an anatomy of contemporary English language usage

Oxford Modern English Grammar is the Oxford University Press brand new and definitive guide to English grammar. It’s a book written by a leading expert in the field that covers both British and American English. and it makes use of authentic spoken and written examples. Arranged in four clear parts for ease of use, its comprehensive coverage ranges from the very basic to the most complex aspects of grammar, all of which are explained clearly yet authoritatively. As a source of reference it’s invaluable for those with an interest in the English language, undergraduate and postgraduate students, and it will be useful to anyone else who would like a clear guide to English grammar and how it is used.

Oxford Modern English GrammarThe author Bas Aarts warns that the book is descriptive, not proscriptive in approach.

Readers hoping to find confirmation that the so-called split infinitive is an odious manifestation of the decline of the English language – to give but one example of a common usage shibboleth – will be disappointed.

So – if it doesn’t provide a list of rules of what is and what’s not permissible – what does it have to offer? The answer is – an explanation of the basic principles and structures of English language as it is currently used. Arts begins by clearing the decks to establish the terms in which grammar can be discussed. And this means items as fundamental as what can be said about a single word and how it can be used – which immediately involves issues such as word classes, tense, mood, and the place in a sentence where the word is used.

Next comes the system of inflection which can modify words – which is mercifully (for non-Native learners) minimal in English language, making it easier to learn in its earlier stages at least. He also looks at the way in which new words can be formed or changed – by conversion, back-formation, clipping, and blending (he bagged the goods – recycling – flu – smog).

I was heartened to see that despite his descriptive approach, a firm emphasis was put on the necessity for a subject in a clear English statement, preferably at the start of the sentence or utterance. Statements such as deleted it manually do not begin to make any sense until they are preceded by I, she, or they.

There are entire chapters on tense and mood, which can be quite complex because of the way temporality and mood are constructed in English from strings of verbs – as in examples such as I will have been living here for five years – You might be about to realise that ….

This is a reference work, and just because it doesn’t offer proscriptive rules doesn’t mean that there are no mistakes or unacceptable uses in English. To say the painting was executed brilliant, with also vividly colours is just wrong, and no two ways about it.

There are appendices of irregular verbs (abide/abode/abided – lie/lay/lain) detailed references to sources, and suggestions for further reading on all topics. All the examples he chooses are taken from the database of the International Corpus of English held at University College London – a compilation of spoken and written English taken from living contemporary sources.

It has to be said that the coverage is thorough and rigorous, but very dry. It’s a series of internal principles which have been extracted and documented from contemporary usage. For advice on how to speak and write properly you would have to go elsewhere (such as here for instance). It’s a reference for the college library or the shelf of a linguist or a grammarian – if there are any of those around any more.

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© Roy Johnson 2011

Bas Aarts, Oxford Modern English Grammar, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011, pp.410, ISBN: 0199533199

Oxford Reference Grammar

by

up-to-date guide to modern English grammar

This Oxford Reference Grammar guide is based on the most important chapters in Stanley Greenbaum’s authoritative work, The Oxford English Grammar. It is arranged thematically, starting from a description of the history of English language and grammar, then taking the major topics in turn – from words, phrases, and syntax, up to the point at which grammarians customarily stop – the sentence.

Oxford Reference GrammarThe explanations topics are broken up into small, easy-to-follow sections, and there is a full complement of bibliography, glossary, and comprehensive index. There is also a fussily detailed but ultimately useful numerical reference system. These are described as ‘links’ – a clear indication the influence hypertext and its language. It provides guidance on all word classes and word structures, including phrases, clauses, and sentences.

In line with contemporary attitudes to language studies, it takes a descriptive rather than a prescriptive attitude to grammar. That is, it describes how language is being used, rather than how somebody thinks it ought to be used. Each point is illustrated by quotations drawn from authentic spoken and written data. So a typical entry reads:

8.2.2 Adjectives that are predicative only

[17] Caroline is afraid Nellie’s attempts to get her to join in the nude dancing and runs off. [Jennifer Breen In Her Own Write]
[18] I was getting quite fond of him.
[19] Her office personality is a positive one; but she is not aware of this, any more than she is conscious of her breakfast-time vagueness. [W]

Many these predicative adjectives resemble verbs in their meanings: afraid ‘fear’, fond ‘like’, aware that ‘know that’.

It deals with all the standard difficulties in English, such as the issues who/whom, should/ought, that/which, and different from/to. Be warned however. Even though this is in handy paperback format, it’s not for beginners. You have to be prepared for sections labeled ‘Extraposition the postmodifier other than in the subject’, ‘Restrictive and non-restrictive modification’ and ‘Segregatory and combinatory coordination’.

It offers a compilation linguistic definitions and reference in a compact format which will be most useful for teachers language studies, students English language and linguistics, and lay readers who wish to understand some the niceties English grammar. It’s also worth saying that by covering the written and spoken language in both the UK and America, it is intended for English-speakers anywhere in the world.

© Roy Johnson 2000

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The Oxford Reference Grammar, (ed Edmund Weiner), Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000, pp.410, ISBN: 0198600445

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Punctuation

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beginner’s guide to the basic principles of punctuation

Oxford University Press have just brought out a series of short beginners’ manuals on communication skills. Their emphasis is on compact, no-nonsense advice directly related to issues of everyday life. Punctuation in English can be almost as tricky as spelling. Robert Allen cleverly approaches the topic by explaining what punctuation is for, and how it can help you to write more effectively.

Punctuation He recognises that choices are not always clear cut. Does a pause in a sentence warrant a comma, a semi-colon, or maybe even a dash? And his explanations of the answers are illustrated throughout by everyday, practical examples. Beginners in particular will find his explanations very reassuring. He describes the basics of constructing statements and how they are best expressed using the basic elements of punctuation – from the comma to the full stop. Next comes the more complex issues of representing speech and using such punctuation marks as the colon and the semicolon. Don’t worry – everybody has problems with that one!

In fact there’s a useful section on how to avoid the most common mistakes in punctuation – such as using too many commas, or using the comma as a substitute for the full stop.

The second part of the book is a simple checklist of each common mark of punctuation – showing how each is used. And he ends with comments on the most popular problems – including what he calls ‘the grocer’s apostrophe’.

This is easy to read and understand. It’s a book which will be suitable for anyone unsure about what is ultimately a matter of taste and style.

© Roy Johnson 2002

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Robert Allen, Punctuation, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002, pp.104, ISBN: 0198604394

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Spelling Guide

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beginner’s simple guide to spelling and language

Spelling worries many people. Understandably so, because mistakes in spelling are often regarded as a black mark in terms of literacy and written competence. Oxford University Press have just brought out a series of short beginners’ guides on communication skills. The emphasis is on compact, no-nonsense advice directly related to issues of everyday life. In his Spelling Guide Robert Allen takes a reassuring line in explaining why spelling is difficult in English, and he offers a variety of solutions to the problem.

Spelling Guide Beginners in particular will find his approach very helpful, and even advanced users will probably learn a thing or two. He starts by showing you how to use dictionaries, then how to use spell-checkers. He explains how and why English spellings have often become so irregular. And fortunately, he also explains the cases where some rules do apply.

Some of his advice tips over into tutorials on the nature of language – quite rightly. For instance, one good tip for many people is that the apostrophe in terms such as who’s and it’s stands for a missing letter. Knowing this might help you to understand the spelling, and help you put the apostrophe in the right place.

He deals with all the most common problems – not only the most notorious misplaced apostrophe, but the s/z issue in words such as realise/realize, and word endings, especially the doubling of consonants in words such as regret/regretted. (Yet it’s target/targeted – how strange!)

There’s a whole chapter explaining why spelling is such a complex issue. Basically, it’s because English is comprised of so many different languages. The influence of Latin, Greek, Anglo-Saxon, French, and German are all still actively present.

The second half of the book is a series of checklists of ‘problem’ words – short (weird) long (accommodation) confusables accept/except) noun and verb forms (advice/advise) how to choose the right ending (stationary/stationery) verb endings (finalize/surprise) irregular plurals (banjos/zeros) and words with Latin and Greek endings (addendum/vortex).

The chapters of this book are short, but almost every page is rich in hints and tips. The strength of this approach is that it avoids the encyclopedic volume of advice which in some manuals can be quite frightening. This is a book which will reassure those who need it.

© Roy Johnson 2003

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Robert Allen, Spelling, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002, pp.128, ISBN: 0198603835

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Teacher’s Guide to Grammar

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teaching language and the national curriculum

The other day I overheard a young girl of around eight ask her mother “What’s a phoneme?” Not surprisingly, her mother didn’t even understand the question. And the girl added, “I think it’s part of a word” – which was not a bad shot. This made me realise just how firmly traditional English grammar was back in our national curriculum. And when I thought of the poor teachers having to implement this policy, my heart sank on their behalf. I think Deborah Cameron would understand and sympathise with this feeling, because this teacher’s guide to grammar is aimed specifically at existing and would-be classroom workers. They now have the unenviable task of introducing what is essentially the study of linguistics into the daily life of schoolchildren.

Teacher's Guide to GrammarCameron starts by dispelling some of the common misconceptions and myths about grammar, and making the important distinction between written and spoken English. Instead of looking at grammatical rules then giving examples, she works the other way round, examining the way language is actually used, then drawing some general lessons from it. First the way words are formed (morphology) then how sentences are built up via regular syntax and well organised phrases.

All the points she makes are illustrated by short modern examples drawn from the way people actually speak and write, and she offers some quite useful tables which I can easily imagine teachers using in their classes.

She delivers some interesting analyses of scientific writing, newspaper headlines, and children’s creative prose to illustrate the use of compression in writing by using noun phrases. The same is true of her treatment of verbs. Instead of dry grammatical definitions, we get a more useful account of the function of different verb forms and modality – making statements about different periods of time and various shades of possibility and probability.

She also offers careful analyses of real examples of student writing – not merely to point out grammatical errors, but to reveal the real structure of the language holding together the meaning underneath the surface. And many of these ‘mistakes’ are features of language which novelists and poets use deliberately for artistic effect.

The whole of the debate over Standard English and dialect/received pronunciation is put into refreshing historical context, as is the use of different registers (which interestingly enough are not a prescribed requirement of the national curriculum).

She demonstrates in a way which classroom teachers will find useful that non-standard speech can co-exist quite easily along with standard writing. And she concludes with an examination of the special circumstances surrounding English as an additional language (EAL).

Anyone faced with the need to understand grammar or explain it to others will find this book useful. It’s good that linguists of Deborah Cameron’s stature are putting their intellectual shoulder to the wheel in helping the classroom teacher.

© Roy Johnson 2007

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Deborah Cameron, The Teacher’s Guide to Grammar, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007, pp.163, ISBN: 0199214488

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