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Google Hacks

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one hundred industrial-strength tips and tools

This has got nothing to do with hacking in the normal sense. It’s a book about improving your Web search skills using the world’s best search engine. Google is the ultimate research tool – a formidable search engine that now indexes more than eight billion web pages, in more than 30 languages, conducting more than 150 million searches a day. The more you know about Google, the better you are at pulling data off the Web. This book is a collection of real-world, tested solutions to practical problems. It offers a variety of interesting ways to mine the information at Google, and helps you have fun while doing it.

Google HacksTara Calishan shows you how to make the most of Google’s basic services; how to access image collections and newsgroups; looking for phone numbers and news stories; multi-language searches; and maximising the rankings of your own web pages. Google is not case sensitive; there’s a limit of ten words; you can’t use the asterisk for wildcards on letters, but you can use it for complete words.

There’s advice on how to improve your search results using slang terms. You can search by page title, URL, link, filetype, date, language, and even pages which are stored in cache. Even more miraculously, you can enter details of a page at Google and have them translated into any number of foreign languages.

Google also now includes its own special services – images, news, groups, and catalogues. Just type one of these words instead of www in the address.

The second part of the book offers a detailed technical account of how to merge Google into your own site. This will appeal to programmers. Once you’ve got this set up you can then indulge a whole variety of customisations, games, personalised searches, and even pranks.

I found all the scripting quite a struggle, but then suddenly the last part of the book is a wonderfully clear and persuasive section about raising the rankings of your own pages. How to choose meta tag terms; where to position your best material; and if you want to get really complicated, how the page rank algorithm works.

There is then a really good checklist of advice about making your site more efficient by simplifying and shrinking pages. For any serious web masters, the book is worth it for this part alone.

All these advanced search strategies make this an invaluable resource for librarians, information engineers, and any serious researchers. No wonder the first printing sold out immediately.

The new third edition has been completely reorganized and offers many new searches, along with coverage of Gmail, Google Desktop, Google Site Search, and tips on using Google AdWords.

© Roy Johnson 2005

Buy the book at Amazon UK

Buy the book at Amazon US

Tara Calishan and Rael Dornfest, Google Hacks: 100 Industrial-Strength Tips & Tools, 3rd edn, Sebastopol CA: O’Reilly, 2003, pp.576, ISBN 0596527063

Grid Systems

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the principles of organising type on page and screen

Well-designed pages – on screen or in print – are built on the structural basis of grid systems. That’s the hidden network or mesh underlying the page design which helps to keep all its parts in close and logical relationship. This book tells you how to understand and create grids. The approach is that of a tutorial – showing the good and not-so-good results of arranging a set of basic elements on a 3 x 3 grid.

Grid Systems There’s a lot of visual repetition, and the writing is rather stiff, but the upside is thoroughness. The same page is shown over and over again, with endless variations in layout, text position, alignment, and reading direction. These tutorial sections are punctuated by analyses of successful and famous examples of the use of grids.

The illustrations come from classics such as Jan Tschichold’s advertising brochure for his revolutionary study Die Neue Typographie, a Bauhaus catalogue designed by Herbert Bayer, and modern designs such as a an architectural web site and a Nike product catalogue.

The really interesting feature of this book is that the pages used to illustrate its ideas are prefaced by a semi-transparent skin which shows the grid on which the base design has been built. It’s a superb use of modern print technology.

This is a well-produced book which illustrates its point very clearly and is a very attractive production in its own right. It comes from the same series as Ellen Lupton’s Thinking with Type which we also reviewed recently.

© Roy Johnson 2005

Grid Systems   Buy the book at Amazon UK

Grid Systems   Buy the book at Amazon US

Kimberly Elam, Grid Systems, New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2004, pp.130, ISBN: 1568984650

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Hot Text: Web Writing That Works

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new writing  techniques for web communication

If you’re thinking of putting some of your writing on line, keep this rule of thumb in mind. Write 50% less than you would in print – otherwise people will not read it. This is one of the hundreds of tips and guidelines packed into Jonathan and Lisa Price’s new book, Hot Text. They start with a chapter of advice on writing for an audience, and getting closer to the reader, then they move on to something I found fascinating – the concept of ‘writing objects’. This is the practice of splitting up documents into small re-useable parts. It’s basically a plea for applying XML principles during the authoring process. This will enable you to produce Web documents which can be used for any number of purposes.

Hot Text: Web Writing That WorksThis is intermediate to advanced level stuff – not for beginners – and you will need to be patient. There’s a lot of important technological data before they get round to any advice on writing skills. But when they do, it comes in bucketloads. Another important point they make is that text has a double function on the web. It conveys content, but it also acts as an aid to navigation, because we do not have the physical aids provided by printed books. For this reason they advise writers to use plenty of typographical guidance.

They also emphasise the need for brevity and chunking. You should use short sentences, short paragraphs, and make the structure of all documents stand clear in a self-explanatory manner.

Once they get under way, every point is illustrated with before and after examples – 200 words of exposition reduced to 50, for instance. They even deal with issues such as reducing punctuation and moving any statistical data into tables or charts.

The centre of the book is packed with good examples of how to produce efficient writing – leading with punch lines; reducing ambiguity; how to write menus; creating the right tone; how to arrange bulleted lists; and where to place links grammatically for best effect.

They use case studies of sites such as AltaVista, Microsoft, and Amazon to discuss the requirements of writing for eCommerce, and they are particularly good at the special requirements of writing Help files and FAQs.

For commercial sites they are relentlessly on the side of the customer – and the suggestions they offer will allow any honest trader to get closer to customers and win their trust. The formula is simple – be honest, put the customer first, and don’t waffle.

They cover a wide range of digital genres – web marketing copy, news releases, email newsletters, webzine articles, personal resumes, Weblogs – and they even provide tips for would-be job seekers.

Ignore the cheesy photos of the authors which punctuate their chapters. This book is packed with good advice on web writing and modern communication skills – and it’s a must-have for any web content developers, documentation authors, online course constructors, and e-Commerce editors.

© Roy Johnson 2002

Buy the book at Amazon UK

Buy the book at Amazon US

Jonathan and Lisa Price, Hot Text: Web Writing that Works, Indianapolis (IN): New Riders, 2002, pp.507, ISBN: 0735711518

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How to present documents

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document structure and presentation skills

How to present documents effectively

When you have finished writing and editing an important document, you need to present it in the best possible way. You should create what are called the front and back materials.

The front and back materials comprise any or all of the following parts.

Front materials How to present documents

  • Title page
  • Preface
  • Contents page
  • Executive summary
  • Introduction

Back materials

  • Notes
  • Bibliography
  • Glossary
  • Appendices
Front material

The title page

The title page should contain:

  • The title of the document
  • The date
  • The writer’s name
  • The recipient’s name

Example

Proposal

Installing new records system

for

Bindweed Mowers Ltd

 

Written by John Atherton

10 September 2010

For the attention of Jane Brown

Preface

A preface is a short preliminary text which puts the main document into a specific context. Its purpose is to prepare the reader for the main content of the report or proposal that follows.It is a form of ‘introduction’ to the main document. A preface may not always be necessary – but here’s an example:

Preface

This report is based on the research carried out by Myers and Carrston in 1991. Their findings were so revolutionary in the field of preventative medicine that we could not ignore the need to consider genetic modification as a way forward.

We trust that the reader will understand that since the start of the research project, there have been significant shifts resulting from both political and scientific pressures in this field of scientific development.

Contents page

The function of the contents page is to provide an easy way of locating the sections, chapters and any other parts of the document.

The titles of the various sections and chapters should be listed accurately and consistently along with the relevant page numbers.

The titles should appear on the left of the page and the numbers on the right.

Contents

Introduction

Section I

Ledwards and Smith
Recent decline of the industry
The recovery period

Section 2

Questions for the Ministry
Death of sixteen patients

Executive summary

An executive summary is sometimes included at the beginning of a long report or proposal. It gives an overview of the main points contained in the longer document.

For instance in a report, the findings might be summarised along with some recommendations for further action.

In a proposal, the idea, along with items such as the costings or the main problems might be summarised.

The audience for an executive summary is people who needs to be aware in outline of what is going on. These people do not need to know the detail, and so can assimilate the main points or issues without needing to read the whole of a long document.

Introduction

An introduction should provide a context for rest of the document. It should set the scene for what is to follow.

It might provide an explanation of why the document has been written; the topics which will be under consideration, and its overall purpose.

Back material

Glossary

A glossary is needed in a document which uses a lot of technical issues. Words which are specialist or technical jargon are listed, usually in alphabetical order, each with a brief definition.

The glossary can also be used to explain acronyms used in the place of companies or organisations – such a NWBF = National Wholesale Bakers Federation.

Appendix

An appendix contains material which supports or expands on material in the body of a report.

  • survey materials such as questionnaires
  • raw data gathered in the study
  • regulations or statutes
  • illustrations, maps, or diagrams

Bibliography

A bibliography lists the publication details of any work referred to during the preparation of the report, such as books or periodicals.

Each bibliographic entry contains the following information – in this sequence

Bibliography – books

  • name of author(s), surname
  • full title of book (in italics)
  • series (if any)
  • volume number (if applicable)
  • edition (if not the first)
  • city of publication
  • publishers name
  • publication date

Jones, Seymour, and M.Bruce Cohen, The Emerging Business: Managing for Growth, New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1983.

Bibliography – periodicals

  • name of author(s), surname
  • title of article (in inverted commas)
  • name of periodical (in italics)
  • volume or date or both
  • page numbers which contain the article

Johnson, Donna. ‘Why Users Need Concepts’, Data Training, November 1986, pp 37-40.

Notes

Notes are sometimes needed to contextualise or to clarify points made in the body of the document. These are sometimes shown at the bottom of the page (as a footnote) at the end of a chapter (as endnotes) or in a section at the end of the whole document.

The item concerned is preceded by a number which corresponds with the relevant number in the note section. In terms of usability, footnotes are the most convenient for readers. (1)

However, they disrupt the appearance of a page, and for that reason the modern tendency is to use endnotes.

NOTES
1. Most word-processors can now arrange any footnotes automatically.

© Roy Johnson 2013

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How to write a business document

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effective business communication skills

What is a business document?

A business document can be any form of writing connected with commerce, administration, government, industry, or non-personal communication — any of the following:

Business document

These are normally documents printed onto paper, but modern business also includes documents in the form of email messages, web pages, Powerpoint presentations, and online instruction manuals.

You should follow the same principles for writing such documents, no matter in which form they will finally appear.

Five stages of planning

There are five basic stages in the process of writing a business document.

If you are conscious of each one as a separate activity, it will help to make the task of writing a business document easier.

  1. Visualise the document
  2. Determine the content
  3. Create a structure
  4. Write the first draft
  5. Make any revisions
Visualise the document

Visualise the finished document as a material object. We now know that visualisation is a great aid to achievement.

For this stage you need to know what the business document looks like. Make sure you have at least one good example of the following:

  • a letter
  • a report
  • a proposal
  • a memo
  • a bulletin

Keep these examples in a handy place in your office where you can refer to them at any time. It is a good idea to keep them in a binder, each in its own plastic wallet, so that you can browse and find them easily.

Set up some templates in your word-processor which correspond to the list of document types shown above. This way, you save yourself the repeated task of creating a new layout for every document.

Your templates should conform to the principles outlined in How to Write a Report as follows:

  • Modules — write text in bite-size chunks
  • Relevance — one topic only – exclude anything which doesn’t belong
  • Navigation — use headings and sub headings to guide your reader
  • Consistency — of vocabulary, expression, layout, visual features
  • Hierarchy — multi level text with correspondence between levels
Writing the content

Be sure you know exactly what it is you need to write. If you are not sure about your purpose, it makes the writing more difficult.

Here are some tips for making sure that you start out with a confident and accurate idea of what is required.

Write down the purpose(s) of your document and the response you require.

Put yourself in the place of the person receiving the letter. Answer the three crucial questions yourself before you start writing your document. There are three questions a reader asks about a document:

  1. What is this? — a letter, proposal, memo, report
  2. What’s it about? — new rules, I’m fired, I’m going on a trip
  3. What do I do? — reply, accept an invitation, disagree with the points, give my permission
Creating the structure

Create an overall structure using diagrams or titles in a hierarchy. This will give you confidence – because you can see the complete outline of your document before you fill in the detailed content.

Create a structure using a form you find useful:

  • Lists of topics — every important topic you wish to include
  • Diagrams — which works for you – spider, matrix, mind-map
  • Boxes — a page with several rows of blank boxes, each representing a level of your document

This writing strategy will also deter you from meandering from the topic, because you are writing your text according to the part titles you have created.

You may also wish to use the OUTLINER facility in your word-processor.

You can also create an overall structure using working titles in a hierarchy. Make up quick working titles for your modules chapters and sections.

Don’t agonise about them. You can always change them easily after you have written your draft document.

Here’s an example of an outline in titles

  • New services available
  • Advantage to customer
  • New pricing structure
  • Special discounts
  • Ordering details
  • Names, contacts, numbers

If the document contains a lot of material which needs to be organised in some way or other, use one of the common approaches to creating structure. The parts can be arranged in –

  • logical progression
  • increasing significance
  • equal significance
  • chronological order
  • narrative sequence
  • category groupings
Document titles

There are three kinds of title in business documents.

  1. function title
  2. topic title
  3. combination title

A function title — tells your reader what the section or module is doing. This kind of title is independent of the topic in the text. Here are some examples:

  • Introduction
  • Problems
  • Background
  • Criteria
  • Solution
  • Comment
  • Recommendation

A topic title — tells your reader what the section or module is about. Examples of topic titles:

  • Additional monthly benefits
  • Loan payment methods
  • Calculating overtime
  • Cash-flow difficulties
  • Recruitment methods

A combination title — is made up of two parts, which are topic and function. The combination title does most work in terms of communication. Examples of combination titles:

  • Problem of information overload
  • Solution to staffing problems
  • Way forward for programmers
  • Introduction to new parking rules
  • Action by team members
  • Decision on compliance issues
Titles in general

Be clear — Use titles that clearly describe the function or the content of the module.

Be brief — Make titles brief. Shorter titles are better than longer ones, provided they don’t create any ambiguity. Use no more than three to five words.

Be consistent — Use the same vocabulary in the title as you use in the text module.

Be familiar — Use terms which are generally familiar to any reader. Avoid technical jargon except when you write as one specialist to another.

Be independent — Make each title stand alone and act as an advance organiser for a document, section, chapter, module.

Write the first draft

Write your initial draft in separate sections, parts, or modules. This is a very efficient way of writing your first draft.

You already have your data and the structure of your argument worked out. Now you write the separate sections for each title you have created.

This is much less stressful than trying to write the whole document at once. If you find one section getting out of hand, then break it down into two or three smaller parts.

You can also re-write any individual part which is not successful.

Make revisions

Now is the time to take an overview of what you have done so far. First check the structure of your document and put the parts in order.

Put yourself into the shoes of your reader and ask yourself if the content is properly structured. If you are satisfied that you have created a clear and logical arrangement for the contents of your document, then you can complete the piece with confidence.

If you have followed the five stages, any alterations required at this stage will be minor ones and easily carried out. This process is very easy if you use the editing facilities of a word-processor.

You might also wish to save different versions of the document – in which case, make sure you label them clearly.

© Roy Johnson 2014

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How to write a letter of complaint

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guidelines for effective business communications

letter of complaintIf you have received bad service, faulty goods, or unfair treatment, it’s often a good idea to write a formal letter of complaint.

It is perfectly within your rights to register a genuine complaint.

Modern business practice is to put the customer first, and a letter of complaint will register the fact that you have a serious grievance.

A letter of complaint can be more effective than a verbal response because –

  • you are less likely to become angry
  • it avoids a heated argument
  • the letter is a permanent record
  • your complaint is more difficult to ignore
Writing the letter of complaint

First decide what specific outcome you want from your letter.

Choose one or more of these outcomes:

  • action to rectify a problem
  • compensation in goods or services
  • your money returned
  • the goods replaced
  • a written or spoken apology

If you don’t know, then don’t bother writing.

Step Two

Decide where you are going to direct your complaint.

If it is a small business, you should address your remarks to the manager.

If it is a large company, you might do better addressing your letter to its customer services department at the firm’s head office. They have good reasons to help you:

  • it’s their job
  • protecting their reputation
  • monitoring their staff

The size or ‘cost’ of your complaint will be a much smaller matter to a head office than to a local branch – so you have a better chance of success.

In both cases you need the full postal address.

Step three

You need to make the letter of complaint look as business-like as possible.

It needs to contain a number of key items as a minimum

  1. your name and address
  2. the name and address of the recipient
  3. the date
  4. a title announcing the subject
  5. the body of the letter
  6. your signature

Use A4 sized paper, not a notepad or lined writing paper.

If you are writing by hand, write as neatly and clearly as possible.

If you are typewriting or using a word processor, select a legible font.

If you are using email this will put you to less trouble, but make sure the letter contains all the basic minimum requirements.

In all cases, follow the layout shown in the example that follows.

Example
The Manager
Polly’s Boutique
Market Hall Street
Stockport SK3 1BU		 Mrs C Bailey
24 Westleigh
Clifton Road
Stockport SK4 6RT
14 December 2009

To whom it may concern

Complaint about faulty goods purchased at ‘Polly’s Boutique’

I write to ask for a full refund on the handbag I bought in your Stockport branch on 12 December this year.

I took the handbag back to the store but the shop assistant was most rude in telling me that I wasn’t entitled to a refund as I had used the handbag.

This is not a case of my having changed my mind but one of goods not being fit for purpose. The stitching has come apart and this shouldn’t happen as a result of normal wear.

Please contact me immediately and assure me that you will give me a refund. I do not want a replacement as this model of handbag is obviously flawed in its design.

You can contact me at the address shown above or by phone on 0161 432 9763

Yours sincerely

Christine Bailey
Step four

When writing the letter of complaint it’s important to keep these things in mind

  • don’t get angry or abusive
  • stick clearly to the facts
  • keep calm and respectful
  • don’t make any threats

If you vent your anger on the person reading the letter, you are less likely to gain their sympathy or a positive response.

If you make any sort of threat, they could classify your letter as abuse and call in their lawyers.

If you get the facts wrong, they are entitled to challenge your claims.

Step five

Always keep a copy of your letter.

© Roy Johnson 2010

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How to write a newsletter

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guidelines for effective communication skills

newsletterA newsletter is designed to keep people up to date with events and activities.

It can be issued as a printed document, an email message, or even a blog posting.

Some online companies issue a newsletter every few days, whereas big organisations might issue only two a year.

Some newsletters are just a humble sheet of A4 printed on both sides: others may be multi-page glossy brochures.

A newsletter is a vehicle for spreading information to members of a group, and can also contain amusement and entertainment.

How to be an editor

Your number one task is to gather interesting and relevant news and information, then make it available to your readers.

The biggest part of that task (unless you are very lucky) is likely to be gathering enough information to fill each issue.

The simplest way to do that is to add each news item as it comes in. This saves you the trouble of relocating it again later. Keep a file (paper or electronic) with a copy of each item for the next issue.

Make a note of any important details attached to the news item – such as times, dates, URLs, prices, contact addresses.

Don’t leave all the information gathering until just before a newsletter issue goes out, otherwise you will put yourself under a lot of pressure

Readership

An in-house newsletter for a large business has the advantage of a stable and known readership. But this presents you with the difficulty of coming up with newsworthy stories from one source.

This type of newsletter also has the double-edged characteristic of being driven by company policy.

A newsletter that is aimed at a wide readership has the disadvantage of a largely unknown audience. But by way of compensation, you can take more risks in selecting the content.

Asking for contributions

Lighten the burden of writing a newsletter by inviting contributions from your readers.

People are often willing to write a short article, particularly if it is drawing attention to an event they wish to publicise

Invite readers to notify you of product launches, forthcoming events, or novelties which might interest your readers.

It is quite common to attract such contributions by offering prizes or free gifts in return.

House style

It’s very useful to establish a house style, then stick to it. Choose colours, images, font types, vocabulary, and layout to create your house style.

Tailor your style to reflect your organisation or line of business. This means that your readers will know what to expect.

It also means that any potential contributors know how to present their work.

Editing tips

Every editor’s nightmare is to publish a newsletter then suddenly realise that it contains a silly mistake – a mis-typed phone number, the wrong date for an event, or a URL that doesn’t work.

For this reason, rigorous editing and proof-reading is required before every publication date. Here are some antidotes that work

  • edit and proof-read your newsletter rigorously before every publication
  • check all factual details, but in addition check your spelling and grammar
  • ask someone else to check the text before you send it off
  • don’t try to edit for several features of the writing at the same time

Read through the text several times with only one of these issues in mind:

How to present the content

If you want people to read a newsletter, it’s got to be interesting – to the readers. Pack your newsletter with items that are fresh and newsworthy.

Grab your readers’ attention in the first sentence of any item.

You can make any collection of news more attractive by adding smaller items of entertainment.

Take a tip from newspapers. Almost all of them have crosswords, cartoons, pictures, recipes, and horoscopes scattered amongst their main items.

Add a selection of not-directly-related news items. Remember that –

  • scientists also practice the arts
  • housewives follow current affairs
  • politicians enjoy sports

Here are some tips on regular stand-by extras that can help give your newsletter variety:

  • a quiz
  • an advice column
  • seasonal recipes
  • personal profiles
  • questions and answers
  • how-to articles
  • top 10 lists
  • votes and polls
Legal issues

Even if your newsletter is a small-scale affair, you should take care not to leave yourself open to legal prosecution. Be careful not to libel or defame people – which means making sure that everything you say is true.

Tread carefully with your content: you might be amazed at how easily some people take offence..

On a large-scale circulation newsletter keep in mind that there may be subscribers with views and beliefs quite unlike your own.

Unless you wish to be daring or radical, treat sensitive issues such as religion, politics, and ethical beliefs with care.

[I once printed some of George W. Bush’s famous ungrammatical statements during his illegal invasion of Iraq. Even though they were all things he had actually said, I was heavily criticised by patriotic Americans. I refused to retract the quotations, but lost a lot of subscribers. So decide which is more important – your circulation figures or your political commitment.]

Advertising

If you reach a big enough audience, you may be able to attract paid advertising.

Knowing how much to charge is the biggest problem – especially if you are starting from scratch.

Try to find out how much newsletters like yours charge for both small insertions or paid features (advertorials).

Don’t be greedy. A smaller but regular income will be more useful than a larger but one-off payment.

Make a clear distinction between any advertising and your own content. Readers will be annoyed if they feel they have been duped into reading what turns out to be an advert.

Evading spam filters

If your newsletter is an email message or an HTML attachment, spam filters on the reader’s server will block messages containing certain words.

They are obviously on the lookout for obscene words. But that’s not all. They are checking for the tell-tale signs of get-rich-quick offers, ponzi schemes, and the Nigerian letter scam.

These are some of the hallmarks of spam message that you can easily avoid:

  • titles in all capital letters
  • over-use of exclamation marks
  • satisfaction guaranteed
  • lose weight – cash bonus

Even the simplest and most innocent-looking words can become spam alerts if viewed in a certain way. The easiest was round this problem is to insert characters in such a way that the words are still legible – f.r.e.e   k.n.i.c.k.e.r.s   to cover your   b.o.t.t.o.m.

What to avoid

I receive two dreadful newsletters every quarter – one from my local council, and the other from a university. They both display just about every feature of a useless newsletter publication.

  • all articles heavily self-conratulatory
  • small issues blown out of proportion
  • celebrity profiles – of nonentities
  • financial news with no critical analysis
  • no invitation for reader feedback
  • all negative news omitted

Both of these organisations (at the time of writing) are suffering enormous cuts in government funding, and making huge numbers of staff redundant. These is no mention of this in either publication.

The net result of their phoney optimism and lack of honesty is to debase the value of any serious news they report. Few people read these newsletters. They go straight into the bin.

Email newsletters

Format the newsletter so that it can easily be read on screen. Use narrow columns and plenty of white space between each item of news.

Use shorter sentences than you would for printed materials. Long sentences are particularly difficult to read on screen

Use clear headings for each topic. This gives readers a chance to scan the newsletter for topics which interest them.

Avoid the use of continuous capitals for emphasis. This decreases the chance of being trapped by spam filters.

Always make it quite clear how readers can unsubscribe. Nobody wants to feel trapped. Keep in mind this good joke from Dick Vosburgh: “I haven’t been so happy since the day that Reader’s Digest lost my address”.

Offer a list of topics to be covered in the next isue. This gives reader’s an incentive to keep reading.

Template

Title

——– MANTEX NEWSLETTER ——–

Create a title for your newsletter – then stick to it.

Issue number

Number 165 – December 2010 – ISSN 1470-1863

The ISSN (International Standard Serial Number) is an identification number for serial publications and other continuing resources in the electronic and print world.

The number is issued by the national library of any country, and is free of charge.

Sub-title

Arts, Culture, and Technology as seen from
the digital hub of Media city Manchester UK

This is a brief explanation of the topics covered by the newsletter, and a hint at its general approach.

Advertising

** 13,000+ subscribers will see your AD **

This is an internal announcement, letting potential adveritisers see where their advert would appear.

News item One

0— ‘Here Comes Everybody’

Here Comes Everybody

This is without doubt my outstanding reading experience
of the last few weeks. Clay Shirky is what some people
are now calling a ‘futurologist’.

He analyses the latest developments in computer technology
and uncovers new shifts in social and economic forces.

His prime target is the newspaper industry, which used to
have what seemed like a monopoly on the distribution of
information about current events.

That has now been completely undermined by something as
apparently innocuous as personal blogs.

He also shows *why* Wikipedia has become the greatest
encyclopedia the world has ever seen – even though nobody
gets paid for writing it.

His study is a very engaging mixture of technology, sociology,
politics, and anthropology. Full review here –

This is the lead article – the news item to which you attach most importance, and which you think might be most interesting to your readers.

Make the clickable links as clear as possible. They can be shortened if necessary using services such as TinyURL.com and Bit.ly

Entertainment item one

0— Pub Quiz Question #1

What part of the body suffers from glaucoma?

Quizzes are a popular way to add variety. You could also try jokes, odd facts, today in history, famous birthdays, or handy household tips.

News item Two

0— Language Skills

http://mantex.blogspot.com/2010/10/language-skills.html

This is an amusing YouTube video of a young kid
speaking English in 24 different accents.

Warning! It’s not safe for work (NSFW) or for
showing your maiden aunt.

What’s even more remarkable is the fact that
he nails so many UK dialects – which as all
good linguists know is not the same thing as
regional accent.

http://mantex.blogspot.com/2010/10/language-skills.html

This is a lighter news item with a link to a YouTube video clip. Keep in mind that these are sometimes removed and may become copyrighted.

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© Roy Johnson 2010

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How to write a report

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planning, structure, writing, and presentation skills

What is a report?

How to write a ReportA report is a detailed and well-organised document that defines and analyses a subject or a problem.

A report should always be accurate, concise, clearly written, and well structured.

A report might also record a sequence of events, evaluate a product or a process, discuss a series of proposals, or make a number of recommendations.

A report should include all the information necessary for the reader to understand the topic under discussion and make informed decisions about it.

The purpose of a report

Reports are used in education, business, finance, government, manufacturing, and scientific research.

In small and medium companies they usually communicate information from one company to another. In large companies they communicate information between personnel.

You might write a report when applying for a grant; to accompany a business proposal; or to describe a project which has been commissioned.

Reports might also be important to record the progress of a business – as in a company’s annual report.

Reports do not have to be long – or boring. They should be clear and easy to understand, especially if they are written for somebody else.

How to write a report

Writing a report is often a major undertaking for many people. The task can be made easier by breaking it down into a series of steps. The following are recommended as guidelines for writing reports.

Stage 1 – Choose the type of report

Stage 2 – Decide the purpose of report

Stage 3 – Choose report sub-headings

Stage 4 – Assess your data

Stage 5 – Draft the report

Stage 6 – Edit and proof read

If you need to produce a report whose type is not discussed here, follow the same principles. That is – first of all think carefully about the form or kind of document you are going to produce.

It will help you enormously if you get hold of an example of the type of report you need to produce. In particular, study its structure, and use that as a model for what you have to write.

You might need to adapt another type of report for your purposes. If you need to create your own type of report, follow the guidelines for creating good structure in documents.

Acquaint yourself with some examples of various report types. This will help you to decide which type of report you need.

Stage 1 — Types of report

1. A meeting report communicates the details of a meeting to people who did not attend. It may also go to people who did attend, as a summary of events for future reference.

The minutes of a meeting record the major points made by a group of two or more people who conduct a meeting.

2. A project report is a record kept by the project manager, and is presented to management or sponsors. It usually details chronologically the events, achievements and attainment of a project’s targets and objectives.

3. A feasibility report is similar to a problem-recommendation report but it describes one possible solution in detail and makes recommendations.

4. A sales report gives the details of a salesperson’s contact with a specific customer or company – indicating whether or not sales have been made.

5. A status report tells the management what has been happening on a project, and to what degree it is going according to plan.

6. A problem recommendation report outlines the writer’s investigation into a particular problem and recommends a course of action to solve the problem

7. A site-visit report summarises the conditions which obtain at a particular location in relation to a project – such as the construction of a building.

8. A company report is the record of a business and its recent history, made usually at the end of a financial year. It combines management strategies, sales results, and accounts.

Stage 2 — The purpose of your report

The purpose of a report will have an effect on both its content and the manner in which it is presented.

A good starting point is to write out the purpose of the report in a sentence or two. This ‘purpose statement’ will help you to focus on your primary needs. It will help you by giving the report both a starting point and a goal.

Typical examples of purpose are to inform, instruct, persuade, or to record.

A report may have more than one purpose – just as it might have more than one audience. For instance, a company’s annual report is a statement for the directors, the shareholders, and the public in general.

An academic report (say, in science or engineering) may have a double purpose. First the recording of an experiement or a field visit. Second, demonstrating that the author is familiar with the conventions of academic writing in that discipline.

A commercial sales report might be used by regional and national sales managers, a finance controller, and the chief executive officer (CEO).

These various parties will be interested in different aspects of the report. And since each reader has different interests in the report’s content, it is important to plan the report so that it includes the information each reader is looking for.

Stage 3 — Report headings and sub-headings

Choose the sub-headings for your report from the following list. Doing this at the planning stage will help you to write a clear report which is easy for your recipient to read.

Arrange the sub-headings in conjunction with your main headings at a later stage. The following list of headings which belong with report types is arranged in alphabetical order.

Action needed

Example
Please select an appropriate time and place to meet and inform the members of the team.

Assumption

Example
The project team will consist of one half-time systems analyst and two full-time, experienced programmers.

Attachment

Example
You will find the following attachments which establish the legal status of this policy.

Background

Example
I met the Chair of Needwell last Thursday and we agreed that I would send you information regarding the expansion plans.

Benefit

Example
The benefits of a fully implemented WebCT system are as follows:

  • better utilisation of resources
  • a balanced production load
  • decreased stock in inventory
  • decreased order expediting
  • reduced production costs

Caution

Example
Although there is a new policy for internal promotion, there are more people qualified for advancement than there are slots available.

Constraint

Example
The union contract permits only eight hours work per day before overtime must be paid.

Contact

Example
If you or anyone in your department wants to submit comments on our new word processing equipment, send them in writing to J.Bloggs Staff Depot

Deadline

Example
These changes apply to all applications we receive on or after 10 October 2015

Decision needed

Example
Please let me know when we can meet to design a new form for travel reimbursement.

Implication

Example
If the Company adopts the proposed retirement policy we can anticipate the following:

  • a large pool of experienced executive talent for our T Project
  • improved morale among all employees approaching retirement age
  • slightly higher costs of medical expenses and insurance

Importance

Example
If we do not have our new word-processing equipment running by 17 September 2010, we will not be able to support the production goals.

Introduction

Example
The Fine Food Marketing Company has recently entered the health food industry with a brand new type of food supplement called Gatewell.

Law

Example
The commissioner of environmental quality engineering or his designee may issue orders in the name of the department of environmental quality on being presented with proof of the violation of any statute, rule, regulation, or code which the department is authorized to enforce.

Objective

Example
We expect that the new system will be fully operational by May 2006

Options

Example
The company has two staffing options available for this project

  1. use entirely new employees
  2. use a mix of employees and contractors

Policy

Example
This company will employ individuals without regard to race, colour, gender, or national origin.

Problem

Example
Our work processing system does not have the capability to handle special graphic presentations. This causes a loss of business.

Purpose

Example
The purpose of the meeting is to make and document an action plan for opening the Greenleaf Site.

Rationale

Example
Our decision to avoid genetically modified elements in our wines is based on the lack of evidence currently available concerning the effects of GM elements.

Recommendation

Example
In conclusion, we strongly recommend that new measures be put in place for testing our boilers for corrosion.

Reference

Example
Please refer to the Critical Quarterly for reviews on the publications mentioned in the body of this report.

Schedule

Example
The schedule below gives details of the staffing responsibilities

  • Week 1 Payroll
  • Week 2 Personnel
  • Week 3 Support Team

Source

Example
I found the statistics for the Boston Flyer in The Engineering Journal published May 2000.

Speaker

Example
Tuesday’s speaker will be Sir Harold Busby, Chairman of Astrolux.

Summary

Example
This report has examined the feasibility of a merger between Minibok and Fair Trading. It has examined the financial and social implications.

Stage 4 — Assess the data

Before sitting down to write your report, make sure you have all the research data to hand. Mark out each part of the data, allocating it to one of your sub-headings.

If you have some data which doesn’t fit any of the sub-headings, think carefully about whether to create a heading which fits the data or whether to discard the data as irrelevant.

It is perfectly normal to gather data which is not needed in the final report. Do not feel obliged to include material just because it exists.

Stage 5 — Draft the report

Draft your report in short sections, under each one of your headings or sub-headings. This way, you will be able to rearrange the sequence, or delete some content.

Working in short sections makes writing an easier process. Use the following guidelines for drafting the sections.

Create readability by structure

Your reader will digest the document most efficiently if the text is broken down into bite-size sections. Large dense blocks of text are overfacing and difficult for the eye to deal with.

Your sections should comprise no more than ten lines. Here is an example of the bite-size section.

Increased sales

New customers
The sales team has broken all records this month.
The number of new customers has rocketed from last month’s total of 10,000 to 12,975.

Additional bonuses
In view of this we are giving all members of the sales team an additional bonus of 0.5 per cent.

Create readability by relevance

Each section should contain one idea. Nothing else should be added. Extra ideas, even if they are connected with the subject, should be given their own paragraph.

In the example given above, the topic of increased sales stands alone. The extra topic of bonuses is related, but comprises a separate paragraph.

Create readability by navigation

Each topic in your report should have a signpost or a sub-heading. This prepares your reader for what is to follow.

It also helps the reader in referring back efficiently to a specific point or topic. In the example given above, each topic is signposted to prepare the reader for what is coming.

The heading ‘Increased sales’ introduces the main topic, whilst ‘new customers’ and ‘additional bonuses’ announce the sub-topics.

Create readability by verbal consistency

Your reader will digest your report quickly and efficiently if you use layout, headings, font style, and vocabulary consistently.

Reports are entirely functional and therefore quick, efficient reading is your objective.

In the example given above, vocabulary is used consistently. The word ‘sales’ is used both in the main heading and in the body text The word ‘customer’ is used both in the sub-heading and in the body text

Create readability by visual consistency

Consistency helps readers to find their way in a document. At every level of the document you should use consistency in:

Visual presentation

  • Font type and size
  • Page layout
  • Main Headings
  • Sub-headings
  • Bulleted lists
  • Numbered lists
  • Page numbering
  • Justification (right, left, centre, full)

Consistent language

  • Vocabulary
  • Sentence size
  • Sentence construction
  • Style of expression


Follow the guidelines on How to present documents to give your report a professional appearance.

Stage 6 — Edit and proof read

Editing and proof reading a substantial report might be a lengthy and time-consuming process. But it will make the difference between an amateur and a professional piece of work.

Editing is the process of checking your work very carefully in order to –

  • remove any spelling mistakes
  • check your grammar
  • make your punctuation consistent
  • re-write any clumsy expressions

Proof reading is the very last stage of making any changes. At this point it is assumed that the content of the report has been checked for accuracy, grammar, and punctuation.

Proof reading looks at the presentation of the text in even greater detail – mainly for matters of bibliographic and typographic consistency.

  • Capitalization of headings
  • Font size and style
  • Spacing between paragraphs
  • Regularity of indentation
  • Consistent use of italics and bold

Follow the guidelines on Editing your writing to produce a document which is free from minor blemishes.

Sample report structure

Title page

[This should normally include the following as a basic minimum]

the title of the report

the name of the author

or

the name of the organisation

the date

Acknowledgements

[If necessary – in longer reports]

A list of people and organisations who have helped in the production of the report.

Contents page

[Always included in any reports of more than a few pages]

A clear list of all the sections and sub-sections in the report – with page numbers.

If applicable, there should be a separate list of tables, figures, illustrations and appendices after the main index.

The headings in this list should correspond exactly with those in the main body of the report. Generate the list of contents after completing the report.

Terms of reference

[Sometimes included]

A definition of the task or the brief you were given. This is statement of the specific objective and purpose behind writing the report.

Even if you don’t include this as a heading, it is a vital process to go through in your planning.

  • What exactly is your report going to be about?
  • Who exactly is responsible for what?
  • How long have you got? What is your task timescale?
  • Why are you writing the report?
  • Who are you writing the report for?
  • What does your reader want to see?

Procedure

[sometimes included]

How your research was carried out; how the information was gathered and treated.

This section might also be called ‘methodology’ in some reports.

Materials and methods

[included if appropriate]

Similar to methodology or procedure, but more appropriate to scientific or engineering report writing. The following advice comes from Robert Barrass’ book Scientists Must Write (Chapman & Hall, 1978, pp.135-136).

1. List the equipment used and draw anything that requires description (unless this is very simple).

2. State the conditions of the experiment and the procedure, with any precautions necessary to ensure accuracy and safety. However, when several experiments are reported, some details may fit better in the appropriate parts of the Results section.

3. Write the stages in any new procedure in the order of implementation, and describe in detail any new technique or modifications of an established technique.

4. If necessary, refer to preliminary experiments and to any consequent changes in technique. Describe your controls adequately.

5. Include information on the purity and structure of the materials used, and on the source of the material and the method of preparation.

Summary

[usually included in longer reports]

This is a short summary of the entire report, created for those people who may not have time to read the entire document.

This is often called the Executive Summary (in business reporting), Abstract (in a dissertation or thesis) or Synopsis (in a scholarly work).

It’s a very brief outline of the report to give the potential reader a general idea of what it’s about. A statement of:

  • overall aims and specific objectives
  • method or procedure used
  • key findings
  • main conclusions and recommendations

Introduction

This might be optional, but writing an introduction will help you to describe your overall purpose.

This should show that you have fully understood the brief and that you are going to cover everything required. Indicate the basic structure of the report.

Include just a little background or context and indicate the reasons for writing the report. You may include your terms of reference and procedure or research methods if not covered elsewhere.

Your introduction will often give an indication of the conclusion to the report.

Write this last of all so that you know what it is you’re introducing. You could have a working introduction that is edited when the body of the report is complete.

Main body of the report

This is the substance of your report. The structure will vary according to the nature of the material being presented, with headings and sub-headings used to clearly indicate the different sections.

Charts, diagrams, tables, and illustrations can be used to reinforce the points your are making.

Sometimes it may be better to include these as an Appendix, particularly if they are long or complicated.

Do not include opinions, conclusions or recommendations in this section.

Results

[included mainly in scientific or engineering reports]

This section records your observations and would normally include statistics, tables or graphs.

These are called ‘findings’ in a business context.

Conclusion

[always included]

Your conclusion should state the implications of your findings, with deductions based on the facts described in your main body. Don’t include any new material here.

Recommendations

[if required]

These should follow on logically from your conclusion and be specific, measurable and achievable. They should propose how the situation or problem could be improved by suggesting action to be taken. A ‘statement of costs’ might be included if you are recommending changes that have financial implications.

Recommendations can be numbered for the sake of clarity.

Appendices

(if required)

An appendix (plural=appendices) is detailed documentation of points you outline in your findings, for example, technical data, questionnaires, letters sent, tables, sketches, charts, leaflets.

It is supplementary information which you consider to be too long or complicated or not quite relevant enough to include in your main body, but which still should be of interest to your reader.

Each appendix should be referred to in your text. You should not include something as an appendix if it is not discussed in the main body.

References

[if required]

This is a list giving the full details of all the sources to which you have made reference in the body of your report.

Bibliography

[sometimes included]

This is a list of all the sources which you have used during your research – books, articles, and web sites. It should include those you have made reference to in your writing, as well as any other materials you may have consulted but not quoted.

Glossary

[occasionally included]

A glossary contains specialist terms with their contextual definitions. This is particularly useful when specialist terms have been used in the report.

Include a glossary of terms if the report includes a lot of specialised vocabulary, technical jargon, or acronyms which may not be familiar to the reader.

© Roy Johnson 2013

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How to write a web page

by

creating effective text for on-screen reading

Web PageIn order the communicate effectively on the Internet, you need to know how to write a web page that is successful.

Web pages are available for the whole world to see – but you will no doubt have an audience in mind.

Your audience is the people you hope to be addressing. They might be – fellow hobbyists, opinion makers, customers for products, or fan club members.

So – you have your own target audience, but anybody else can read your pages. There is therefor another audience about which you can know nothing (in advance).

If you want to reach as many people as possible, keep this invisible audience in mind. Write in a clear and simple manner. Avoid jargon and complicated expressions.

Layout

A web page is not the same thing as printed document. It might look similar, but it does different things. Your writing needs to be grammatically correct and free from mistakes. But it will not be read in the same way as a book or even a magazine.

People scan a web page before they read it. They glance at the overall content first. They read headings and sub-headings, glance at pictures, and even look for links.

Reading text on a screen is much harder than reading it on a printed page. This means that your writing needs to be different in style.

Your objectives

The function of a web page will depend upon your objectives. The page could be designed to offer a number of things:

  • news
  • information
  • entertainment
  • instruction
  • advice

This will have an effect on the way you deliver the content. But no matter what the function, there are certain golden rules that will help to make any web page effective.

Style

All your writing should be split up into small chunks. Huge blocks of writing on a screen are very difficult to read. The short paragraph is an important part of writing for the Web. This allows readers to grasp what you have to say more quickly.

Have a look at online newspapers. They use short and even one-sentence paragraphs.

Employ as many devices as possible to break up dense blocks of writing. Use headings, sub-headings, bold, and italics. Add graphics where appropriate and use bulleted lists.

Short sentences are easier to read than long ones. This is true on paper, but even more so when writing for the screen. Put a limit of twenty words per sentence on your writing – and watch its effectiveness improve!

The most effective way to communicate with general readers is to write directly in a simple, friendly manner.

Don’t forget that only a small part of a long web page will appear in the monitor screen at any one time. In such cases it’s important that you offer readers clear signals to find their way around.

Vocabulary

The language you use will be conditioned by your subject and the audience you are trying to reach (as well as the extent of your own vocabulary).

If you have a specialist subject and audience (agricultural biology, jet engine design) you will naturally be using the specialist language of your subject (jargon). But if you wish to reach a wide and general public, it’s better to keep you language plain and simple.

There’s no point in using a term such as aerated beverages when fizzy drinks will be understood just as well.

Conventions

It’s not necessary to know HTML coding to write a web page. Most software will do this for you. But a little knowledge will help you control the appearance of the page.

Use the text editing menus that appear in Microsoft Word and the page creation panels of most blogging software (Blogger, WordPress). These will give you the option to put text in bold, italics, and even colour.

A screen of text with different fonts, colours, and emphasis splattered all over the page looks bad. The golden rule here is this – Less is more. Restraint will help you achieve a more impressive appearance.

  • Headings in bold and a larger font size
  • Sub-headings in bold
  • Italics for emphasis and foreign words
  • No use of underlining at all

Underlining makes text hard to read, and the underlining can be confused with a hyperlink.

Examples

You are looking at an example of a web page right now. This type of page is called a ‘How to’ in the language of Web commerce. That is, it offers simple guidance notes on a single topic. Here are three more very different types of page.

Historical document
The first is from the nineteenth century. None of the above guidance notes apply, because readers want the document in a form that is as similar as possible to the original.

Red button Henry James on ‘The Art of Fiction’

Essay
The second is to a short illustrated essay on an artistic movement. This is the sort of article that might normal occupy a few pages in a magazine or a weekend newspaper supplement. It has graphics, links to related subject, and it also contains advertising.

Red button The Omega Workshops

Newspaper
The third is the online version of a daily newspaper. Notice how this page is made up of very short extracts, with links to the full articles, which are located on separate pages. The front page is packed with links, graphics, and advertising. It is also composed ‘dynamically’ – which means that it is updated every few minutes with new content.

Red button The Guardian

© Roy Johnson 2010

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How to write an executive summary

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tutorial, guidance notes, and examples

What is an executive summary?

Business reports often have an introductory section called an ‘executive summary’. This is a self-contained part of the total document – sometimes known as a ‘management summary’.

Executive SummaryIts purpose is to summarise the most important points expressed in the main document. It will usually contain brief statements regarding proposed actions, background information to the document, concise statistics or factual evidence, and principal conclusions.

The summary is usually placed at the beginning of the report or proposal. It might be printed as a separate document and circulated either along with or separately from the main report or proposal.

An executive summary is often written for an audience of senior managers, important decision-makers, potential customers, or committee members. In some cases it might also be circulated to members of the public – to demonstrate the effectiveness and proper conduct of the organisation.

It is a summary available for people who might not have time or may not need to read the entire report. But they might need to know its main points or recommendations, in order to participate in some decision-making process.

The audience for an executive summary might also include members of the public or employees of another organisation – for instance in cases where you might be applying for a grant or offering a product or service.

How is it different to an abstract?

An executive summary is different to the ‘abstract’ of a document – in that an abstract is normally a neutral précis of the whole document. The purpose of an abstract is to give readers an outline of the subject, so that they can decide whether to read the whole document or not.

An executive summary on the other hand normally contains concrete proposals for further action, and the evidence on which these decisions will be taken. It contains within it, even if by implication, calls to action.

It has its own separate heading, and is often constructed so that it can be detached from the main document if necessary.

The structure of an executive summary

The executive summary might even begin with its conclusions! This can act as a sort of a summary of the summary.

For example, in a feasibility report, the executive summary would contain a statement about the main findings of the report, and its recommendations. What follows might be the arguments or the evidence upon which these decision have been taken.

That level of detail is used by those who have a significant responsibility in the decision-making and the implementation of the project.

An executive summary should occupy only one or two pages of text maximum. If it goes on much longer than that, it ceases to be a summary and loses its purpose.

It might normally include an introductory statement, a summary of the findings, and a conclusion containing recommendations or action points. In some cases, its structure might usefully echo that of the main document. You should use clear sub-headings to make the structure clear.

Here is an example of an executive summary which is part of a feasibility report on ‘Setting Up a Company Website’.

Executive Summary

Findings so far

From the responses I have received so far, we already have the following information:

  • key benefits we would derive from a company Website
  • key issues to be addressed before developing the site

Decisions to be made

We need to be able to make the following decisions at the meeting arranged for Friday 2 June.

  • establish the benefits of a company Website
  • identify any key issues which must be addressed
  • identify any possible solutions to potential problems
  • estimate approximate costs for design and maintenance
  • agree on the next stage of the project

Key benefits

We have already established the following key benefits of introducing a company Website:

  • identify new products
  • establish new contacts
  • provide a 24 hour information service for Sales staff
  • provide an effective sales support system
  • widen the audience for our products
  • allow customers to sample our products
Writing the executive summary

If you have written the complete version of the report, your task is simply to make a digest of the full document. For this you will require good summarizing skills.

For a long report, you should make a summary of each section using just a few sentences – then if necessary, reduce these even further, or list them as short bullet points.

Readers can absorb complex data more easily if it is translated into diagrams or ‘information graphics’. Use tables, pie charts, and graphs in which trends and statistics can be seen clearly, without specialist knowledge.

The executive summary should contain less jargon than the full report. That’s because there might be non-specialists involved in the decision-making process. In some cases the executive summary might be something intended for a public audience – such as the summary of a charity’s annual report, demonstrating how it had spent last year’s money, and what its priorities are for the coming year.

The executive summary is written last – after the full formal report has been completed. Yet paradoxically, it comes first when the full contents are assembled for consideration – either as a PowerPoint presentation or in the form of a printed booklet.

The structure of an executive summary

The structure or the sequence headings in your executive summary can follow the same sequence as in the main document or report – with one exception. The conclusions of an executive summary come first, whereas in the main report they are likely to come at the end, followed only by appendices and bibliographies.

Sample summary structure

This is an example of an executive summary in abbreviated form, so as to reveal more effectively its structure. It comes from an imaginary report into a proposal to build a new vehicle access road into an airport.

Conclusions

Manchester Airport Authority (MAA) recommends that its proposal for the new vehicle access road be accepted in the recently modified format dated 12 June 2012.

Consultation with the government’s transport select committee over shared funding of this project will continue, but should not be allowed to delay the commencement of building in March 2014.

Responsibility for the management of the project will rest with RoadBuild Projects Ltd, answerable to the Department of Transport and Greater Manchester Transport Executive

Evidence from Transport Select Committee

This is summarised in Appendix A of the full report.

Evidence from public enquiry

This is summarised in Appendix B of the full report.

Environmental factors

The two principal environmental concerns raised during the consultation period have been related to traffic density on the new approach road and loss of greenfield sites.

It is estimated that building the new approach road will result in a 50% rise in traffic density on a daily basis on the western approach to the airport. This will require considerable expansion in both parking facilities and modifications in existing roads to maintain traffic flow.

Compensation costs for greenfield site acquisition have been built into the project budget, and wherever possible existing brownfield sites have been designated for any expansion of parking facilities.

Costings

These are shown in Table II of the full report.

Building schedule

This is given in Appendix C of the full report.
The writer’s responsibilities

In order to produce the executive summary, you need to have a very clear understanding of the document as a whole. You will also need to know exactly what conclusions can be drawn from it, and the nature of any decision which are to be taken.

If you have only been actively engaged in a part or only one aspect of the whole process with which the report deals, you will need to check with the ‘core participants’ that your understanding of the details is complete and correct.

For instance, you might be given the responsibility for preparing an executive summary simply as a secretarial task. You might not have attended crucial decision-making meetings or done any of the original research with which the report deals. In such cases you should prepare the summary in close liaison with the principal figures associated with the report.

These might be a managing director, a lead researcher, or the chair and secretary of a committee.

© Roy Johnson 2012

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