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Capital letters – how to use them

August 30, 2009 by Roy Johnson

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Capital letters – definition

capital letters Capital letters are used to show the importance of particular words.

redbtn They are always used for proper nouns (people’s names) ; at the start of sentences ; and for places and events of a public nature.


Examples
  • He entered the room, accompanied by Christine Bowman.
  • John wrote a letter to the Bishop of Chester.
  • We will visit Sherwood Forest at Easter this year.

Use

redbtn Capital letters are always placed at the beginning of a sentence.

redbtn They are also used to indicate names and titles, as well as holidays and well-known public places.

redbtn NB! Avoid continuous capitals.

THEY LOOK VERY UNSIGHTLY AND ARE HARD TO READ

redbtn Capitals are used to denote the names of particular or special things.

days of the week Wednesday, Friday
places East Anglia
rivers the river Mersey
buildings the Tate Gallery
institutions the Catholic Church
firms British Aerospace
organisations the National Trust
months of the year April, September

redbtn However, when such terms are used as adjectives or in a general sense, no capital is required:

the King James Bible / a biblical reference

Oxford University / a university education

the present Government / governments since 1967

redbtn Capitals are used when describing intellectual movements or periods of history:

Freudian – Platonism – Cartesian – the Middle Ages
the Reformation – the Enlightenment

redbtn They are also used in the titles of books, plays, films, newspapers, magazines, songs, and works of art in general. The normal convention is to capitalise the first word and any nouns or important terms. Smaller words such as ‘and’, ‘of’, and ‘the’ are left uncapitalised:

A View from the Bridge
The Mayor of Casterbridge
North by Northwest
The Marriage of Figaro

redbtn Notice the difference between the same term used in a general and a particular sense:

The children’s Uncle Fred is seventy.
Their uncle is the oldest in the family.

Self-assessment quiz follows >>>

© Roy Johnson 2003


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How to improve your spelling

November 17, 2009 by Roy Johnson

tips and guidance notes on basic spelling skills

1. spellingYou can improve your spelling skills by reading and writing as much as possible – and checking your written work.

2. If you are not sure about the correct spelling of a word, look it up in a good dictionary.

3. The best ways to improve your spelling are:

  • learn commonly mis-spelled words
  • learn the common rules of spelling
  • learn good spelling strategies

Commonly mis-spelled words

4. The most commonly mis-spelled words are probably there/their, its/it’s, to/too/two, and are/our.

5. This problem is caused because these words sound the same as each other. Here’s how to tell them apart.

6. There refers to a place, whereas their means belonging to them.

The table is over there, in the corner

there refers to a place

We are going to their house

their means belonging to them

7. Its means belonging to, whereas It’s is a shortened form of It is.

The dog is in its basket

its means belonging to the dog

It’s too late now

It’s means It is too late

8. To means towards, whereas too means very or in addition, and two is the number 2.

We are going to the concert

here to means towards

It was too cold for swimming

means it was very cold

He ate two chocolate bars

means the number 2

9. Are is part of the verb ‘to be’ – as in we are, whereas our means belonging to us.

We are in the same class at school

This is the verb ‘to be’, as in I am/we are

We have flowers in our garden

That is, the garden belongs to us


Common spelling rules

10. Almost all words have only one correct spelling – but there are occasional exceptions. Judgement for instance can also be spelled judgment.

11. One of the easiest rules to remember is I before E, except after C – but you need to be careful, because there are plenty of exceptions.

I before E

believe – chief – friend – thief

C followed by EI

ceiling – receive – deceit – conceive

Exceptions

either – neither – foreign – height – seize – leisure


Doubling of consonants

12. If a word ends in a vowel and a single consonant, double the consonant before adding -ing or -ed.

swim/swimming     ship/shipped

stop/stopping     occur/occurred

13. If the vowel is unstressed, or if there are two vowels, do not double the consonant.

enter/entering     shout/shouted

develop/developing     appeal/appealed

14. If the word ends in -c, change the -c to -ck before adding the ending.

panic/panicked     picnic/picnicking


Commonly mis-spelled words

The following words are often spelt wrongly. There is no short way round this problem. You simply have to learn the correct spelling.

acceptable – double c, not -ible.

accommodation – double c and double m

achieve – i before e except after c

assess – two lots of double s

believe – i before e except after c

communicate – double m

convenient – i before e except after c

definite – -ite, not -ate

disappear – double p [dis+appear]

disappoint – double p [dis+appoint]

necessary – one c, double s

receive – i before e, except after c

recommend – double c [re+commend]

stationary – means not moving – use a

stationery – paper we write on – use e

success – double c, double s

weird – an exception to the rule

NB! One final point. Using a spelling-checker is not cheating. You should use one to check your work – and learn correct spellings at the same time.

© Roy Johnson 2009


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New Oxford Spelling Dictionary

August 4, 2009 by Roy Johnson

spellings, hyphens, capitals, and presentation of terms

Unlike a conventional dictionary, the New Oxford Spelling Dictionary lists words without giving their definitions. So – you might well ask – if there are no explanations of meanings, what information does such a book contain? Quite a lot, as it turns out. For instance, it shows distinctions between words which might easily be confused – as in hare/hair – and it also indicates grammatical parts of speech – as in double fault used as a noun and double-fault used as a verb.

New Oxford Spelling Dictionary It also makes firm recommendations where there are variants in possible spellings (use judgement), shows where capitals are required in names, gives American spellings, and shows where logical word breaks occur for hyphenation and compounds. Entries run from aa (lava) and Aachen (which used to be Aix-la-Chapelle) to zymotic and zymurgy. This particular guidance makes it an ideal reference tool for those working with printed or word-processed text.

The reference data is based on the reputable scholarship of the Oxford Dictionary of English. It contains over 110,000 words and names, and in the latest edition includes a large number of compound words as well as very basic information about people and places. So, for instance, Enver Hoxha is the Albanian prime minister, and Santa Catarina is a Brazilian state.

A typical entry on proper nouns shows the variants on a personal name, with the pipe (these things – || -) showing the word breaks.

Kath|er|ine also
Cath|ar|ine,
Cath|er|ine,
Cath|ryn,
Kath|ar|ine,
Kath|ryn

And the same presentation of typical word is rendered thus:

tar|tar + s
(deposit on teeth etc.;
violent-tempered person;
in ‘cream of tartar’.
‡ tartare, ta-ta)

This last detail is an injunction that the term should not be confused with tartare or goodbye.

Of course you still need some idea of how a word is spelled (or spelt) in order to look it up. But this dictionary makes the job less distracting than using a normal dictionary, because it eliminates all that interesting stuff. Less may not be more, but it’s certainly faster.

This will be of most interest to authors, editors, proofreaders or typesetters, for whom it provides an ideal way to ensure the best spelling practice working on any sort of text – newspapers, magazines, reports, theses, or even websites. It has also been produced to team up neatly with the New Oxford Dictionary for Writers and Editors and New Hart’s Rules to form an ideal reference set.

© Roy Johnson 2005

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New Oxford Spelling Dictionary, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005, pp.596, ISBN: 0198608810


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Oxford A-Z of Spelling

July 14, 2009 by Roy Johnson

beginner’s guide to the basics of good spelling

Did you know that yogurt can also be spelled yoghurt or even yoghourt? All three are correct. English spelling is notoriously irregular and can be downright difficult. It’s because our huge vocabulary (the world’s biggest) is made up of words from so many other languages. Don’t feel bad if you need to look up inoculate, haemorrhage and the rule-breaking weird. But if you want to improve your spelling skills, you’ll be well served by the short guide Oxford A-Z of Spelling in the new series from OUP.

Oxford A-Z of Spelling It explains all the basics without going into a lot of off-putting technicalities and jargon. In one sense it is rather like a Dictionary of Difficult Words: it includes 2,000 commonly misspelled (or mis-spelled or mis-spelt) words and hundreds of spelling tips to help you understand the basic rules – and why there are so many exceptions to them. It starts off with guidance notes on how to form plurals, how prefixes and suffixes work, and how to recognise all the irregular cases and exceptions. Then there’s that nagging bugbear of the insecure, the apostrophe – as in Dickens’s novels and men’s clothing

The main entries of the book are an alphabetical listing of common but difficult words, ranging from abattoir to zoos, with a note on what to look out for, and words of a foreign origin signaled to explain unusual spellings.

advise verbUnlike most verbs ending in -ise advise cannot be spelled with an -ize ending. See centre pages for other verbs that always end in -ise.
! Do not confuse advise with advice. Advise is a verb meaning ‘suggest that someone should do something’ (I advised him to leave) whereas advice is a noun that means ‘suggestions about what someone should do’ (Your doctor can give you advice on diet).

These main entries are punctuated by an explanation of beginnings and endings: for- or fore-? -able or -ible? -ance or -ence?. There’s an explanation of grammatical terms, notes on American spelling, and how hyphens are used to form compounds, as in black-haired girl and pick-me-up.

Because the words have been chosen for their irregular or difficult spelling, the book makes a surprisingly interesting read. And I suddenly realised whilst surfing the entries that it also doubles up nicely for use as a spelling quiz. Firmly recommended – especially for beginners.

© Roy Johnson 2007

Oxford A-Z of Spelling   Buy the book at Amazon UK

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Catherine Soanes and Sheila Ferguson, Oxford A—Z of Spelling, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007, pp. 160, ISBN: 0199233470


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Spelling checkers used for essays

August 25, 2009 by Roy Johnson

sample from HTML program and PDF book

1. Most word-processors have spelling checkers these days. You should use the checker before printing out your documents. This should form part of your regular editing procedures.

2. Checking your work with a spell-checker will help to highlight and correct commonly mis-spelt words such as ‘accommodation’, ‘parallel’, ‘recommend’, and ‘silhouette’.

3. The checker will also highlight mis-keyed words such as ‘hte’ for ‘the’ or ‘nad’ for ‘and’. You may either choose the correct word from a list, or the processor may offer you the opportunity to reverse the mis-keyed letters. [The latest even perform this function automatically.]

4. It will not be able to recognise specialist terms and unusual proper nouns – names such as Schumacher, Derrida, or Nabokov. These will not be in the processor’s memory. You will have to check the correct spelling of these yourself, as you would do with any other unusual words.

5. Remember that a spell-checker will not alert you to a mistake if you write ‘They washed there own clothes’ instead of ‘They washed their own clothes’. That’s because the word ‘there’ is spelt correctly even though it is being used ungrammatically in this sentence. The same would be true of ‘It is over hare’ instead of ‘It is over here’. That’s because ‘hare’ exists in its own right as a correctly spelt word.

6. Most spell-checkers will spot unwanted double words such as ‘going to to the fair’, and will offer you the opportunity to delete the second occurrence. But they will not notice anything wrong with a word broken by a space such as ‘to morrow’. That’s because these two terms exist in their own right as separate words.

7. The checker will not alert you to any mistake if you key the word ‘practice’ instead of ‘practise’, because both words exist separately. The same would be true of ‘advise’ and ‘advice’. [Most grammar-checkers will alert you to these common problems.]

8. If you decide to add to the processor’s memory names which are frequently used in your own subject discipline (Freud, Jung, Adler or Marx, Engels, Bukharin) make sure that you enter them correctly spelt.

9. Beware of adding too many names which might be thrown up in the checking of your document. Some proper nouns may be the same as mis-spelt words. If you were to add ‘Fischer’ to the dictionary as a name, this would mean that the spell-checker would not alert you to a problem if you mis-keyed ‘fisher’ as ‘fischer’.

10. Beware of adding to your processor’s dictionary just because it is easy and seems a profitable thing to do. You might for instance add your own postcode of ‘SE9 6OY’ – but if you then mis-keyed the word ‘TOY’ as ‘6OY’ the spell-checker would not then be able to pick up your mistake. It would assume that you wished to regard ‘6OY’ as an acceptable ‘word’.

11. A spell check is usually performed after all your text has been generated and edited. However, there are good arguments for using the checker at earlier stages. Layout and spacing might be affected; the document will be in a reasonably good condition at any given stage; and it may eliminate the necessity for a search and-replace procedure at a later stage.

12. Finally, here is a cautionary (and amusing) ditty which might help you to remember some of these points:

‘My New Spell Checker’

Eye halve a spelling chequer
It came with my pea sea
It plainly marques four my revue
Miss steaks eye kin knot sea.

Eye strike a key and type a word
And weight four it two say
Weather eye am wrong oar write
It shows me strait a weigh.

As soon as a mist ache is maid
It nose bee fore two long
And eye can put the error rite
Its rare lea ever wrong.

Eye have run this poem threw it
I am shore your pleased two no
Its letter perfect awl the weigh
My chequer tolled me sew.

[Sauce unknown]

© Roy Johnson 2003

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Spelling Guide

May 21, 2009 by Roy Johnson

beginner’s simple guide to spelling and language

Spelling worries many people. Understandably so, because mistakes in spelling are often regarded as a black mark in terms of literacy and written competence. Oxford University Press have just brought out a series of short beginners’ guides on communication skills. The emphasis is on compact, no-nonsense advice directly related to issues of everyday life. In his Spelling Guide Robert Allen takes a reassuring line in explaining why spelling is difficult in English, and he offers a variety of solutions to the problem.

Spelling Guide Beginners in particular will find his approach very helpful, and even advanced users will probably learn a thing or two. He starts by showing you how to use dictionaries, then how to use spell-checkers. He explains how and why English spellings have often become so irregular. And fortunately, he also explains the cases where some rules do apply.

Some of his advice tips over into tutorials on the nature of language – quite rightly. For instance, one good tip for many people is that the apostrophe in terms such as who’s and it’s stands for a missing letter. Knowing this might help you to understand the spelling, and help you put the apostrophe in the right place.

He deals with all the most common problems – not only the most notorious misplaced apostrophe, but the s/z issue in words such as realise/realize, and word endings, especially the doubling of consonants in words such as regret/regretted. (Yet it’s target/targeted – how strange!)

There’s a whole chapter explaining why spelling is such a complex issue. Basically, it’s because English is comprised of so many different languages. The influence of Latin, Greek, Anglo-Saxon, French, and German are all still actively present.

The second half of the book is a series of checklists of ‘problem’ words – short (weird) long (accommodation) confusables accept/except) noun and verb forms (advice/advise) how to choose the right ending (stationary/stationery) verb endings (finalize/surprise) irregular plurals (banjos/zeros) and words with Latin and Greek endings (addendum/vortex).

The chapters of this book are short, but almost every page is rich in hints and tips. The strength of this approach is that it avoids the encyclopedic volume of advice which in some manuals can be quite frightening. This is a book which will reassure those who need it.

© Roy Johnson 2003

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Robert Allen, Spelling, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002, pp.128, ISBN: 0198603835


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Spelling reform

October 26, 2009 by Roy Johnson

A Plan for the Improvement of English Spelling

Spelling Reform was a much debated issue in the latter part of the nineteenth century and the early years of the twentieth. Various schemes were put forward for simplifying English spelling, which was thought to be difficult and obscure. These schemes often involved phonetic spelling, and some even went so far as proposing the creation of new alphabets. George Bernard Shaw funded one such scheme. A more recent example is Sayspel, devised by hydraulic engineer Roy Blain. None of these ideas came to anything – for very good reasons. This is also the period which gave rise to Esperanto, a totally artificial, invented language which nobody except enthusiasts actually speaks.

The famous short passage that follows is a satirical response to this idea attributed to the American humorist Mark Twain.


For example, in Year 1 that useless letter c would be dropped to be replased either by k or s, and likewise x would no longer be part of the alphabet. The only kase in which c would be retained would be the ch formation, which will be dealt with later.

Year 2 might reform w spelling, so that which and one would take the same konsonant, wile Year 3 might well abolish y replasing it with i and Iear 4 might fiks the g/j anomali wonse and for all.

Jenerally, then, the improvement would kontinue iear bai iear with Iear 5 doing awai with useless double konsonants, and Iears 6-12 or so modifaiing vowlz and the rimeining voist and unvoist konsonants.

Bai Iear 15 or sou, it wud fainali bi posibl tu meik ius ov thi ridandant letez c, y and x — bai now jast a memori in the maindz ov ould doderez — tu riplais ch, sh, and th rispektivli.

Fainali, xen, aafte sam 20 iers ov orxogrefkl riform, wi wud hev a lojikl, kohirnt speling in ius xrewawt xe Ingliy-spiking werld.

Mark Twain


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Spelling rules – how to understand them

September 13, 2009 by Roy Johnson

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Spelling – definition

spelling rules Spelling is a convention by which words are represented in writing by letters of the alphabet.

spelling rules The spelling of most words is now largely fixed.

spelling rules The relationship between spelling and pronunciation is not consistent.


Examples

The term connection can also be spelled connexion.

Judgement can also be spelled Judgment.

Even spelled can also be spelled spelt!


Use

redbtn Competence in spelling is desirable, but we cannot possibly know the definitive spelling of all the English lexicon.

redbtn Good spelling usually results from an awareness of those words which we need to check in a dictionary.

redbtn Computer spell-checkers are an enhancement to the writing process. They should be used with caution however, as some errors are those of wrong word rather than of spelling.

redbtn For instance, ‘They took there places’. The spell-checker would let that pass.

redbtn NB! Shakespeare used a variety of spellings for his own name.

redbtn Spelling was not generally fixed in English until the eighteenth century. [Samuel Johnson’s dictionary was a landmark in this respect.]

redbtn The following example is from a poem written in the seventeenth century, showing the original spelling of what we would now write as dearly, fain, and enemy:

Yet dearley I love you, and would be loved faine,
But am betroth’d unto your enemie

[JOHN DONNE]

redbtn Spelling mistakes in formal writing create a very bad impression.

redbtn Some words may have more than one acceptable spelling:

connection can be spelled connexion
judgement can be spelled judgment

redbtn Certain organisations such as newspapers and publishers issue rules on spelling for their authors. This is known as House Style.

redbtn Spelling in English does have rules — but there are many exceptions and irregularities. The plural of baby is babies but the plural of donkey is donkeys. We write about honour but the adjective is spelled honorary.

redbtn Even the verb ‘to spell’ itself may be spelled or spelt in the past tense.

redbtn The reason for this irregularity is that English vocabulary is made up of many other languages [Old English, Latin, Greek, and French]. Words from these languages have brought their own spelling characteristics.

redbtn There are minor differences in the spelling of English and American English. Colour is color in the USA, and centre is spelled [or spelt!] center.

redbtn There is no easy way to learn correct spelling. Rules exist, but there are many, many exceptions. You should simply take an interest in the words themselves.

redbtn On the question of possible spelling reform, the American writer Mark Twain has some typically humorous comments to make.


A Plan for the Improvement of English Spelling

For example, in Year 1 that useless letter ‘c’ would be dropped to be replased either by ‘k’ or ‘s’, and likewise ‘x’ would no longer be part of the alphabet. The only kase in which ‘c’ would be retained would be the ‘ch’ formation, which will be dealt with later.

Year 2 might reform ‘w’ spelling, so that ‘which’ and ‘one’ would take the same konsonant, wile Year 3 might well abolish ‘y’ replasing it with ‘i’ and Iear 4 might fiks the ‘g/j’ anomali wonse and for all.

Jenerally, then, the improvement would kontinue iear bai iear with Iear 5 doing awai with useless double konsonants, and Iears 6-12 or so modifaiing vowlz and the rimeining voist and unvoist konsonants.

Bai Iear 15 or sou, it wud fainali bi posibl tu meik ius ov thi ridandant letez ‘c’, ‘y’ and ‘x’ — bai now jast a memori in the maindz ov ould doderez — tu riplais ‘ch’, ‘sh’, and ‘th’ rispektivli.

Fainali, xen, aafte sam 20 iers ov orxogrefkl riform, wi wud hev a lojikl, kohirnt speling in ius xrewawt xe Ingliy-spiking werld.

Self-assessment quiz follows >>>

© Roy Johnson 2004


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Troublesome Words

May 31, 2009 by Roy Johnson

A-Z of problematic English words – with explanations

Before he became a best-selling travel writer, Bill Bryson worked as a sub-editor on The Times. This is a successful guide to problems of English language he wrote for journalists at the time, now updated and in its third edition. It’s arranged on an A to Z basis – running from abbreviations and acronyms, through mean and median (know the difference?) to wondrous, years’ time, and zoom. He explains words we commonly misunderstand, words we confuse, tricky issues such as foreign terms, and points of grammar such as split infinitives. And he does this with all the verve and wit which have made him such a well-loved writer.

English LanguageHe’s particularly good at showing the subtle distinctions between similar words (such as amid and amongst) and words which are easily confused (such as blatant and flagrant).

I couldn’t agree with him on data being a plural noun – but he does invite readers to challenge his judgements. You have to be on your intellectual toes. Sometimes his explanations are rather cryptic

Comprise means to contain. The whole comprises the parts and not vice versa.

But the correlative of this is that he packs a lot in. And occasionally this terseness works entirely to his advantage:

When something is not working properly, it is defective; when it is missing a necessary part, it is deficient.

The reason there are all these problems with English is that we have so many different terms for the same thing. Bill Bryson explains all this in his other excellent book Mother Tongue, to which this is a follow-up. He also throws in all sorts of extras – such as how to pronounce the name of the fish coelacanth (see-luh-kanth).

You will almost certainly learn about the meaning of words you never thought about before. Did you know the difference between ‘expectorate’ and ‘spit’ for instance?

There’s a very good bibliography and a glossary. Anybody interested in sharpening their writing skills will profit from reading this book. It’s a reference guide, a tutorial, and a very entertaining insight into language niceties for the general reader.

© Roy Johnson 2009

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Bill Bryson, Troublesome Words, London: Penguin Books, 3rd edn, 2009, pp.256, ISBN: 0141040394


Filed Under: Language use Tagged With: Etymology, Language, Reference, Spelling, Words, Writing skills

Using a spell checker

September 16, 2009 by Roy Johnson

a poetic caution – please take note

Ode to a spell checker

Eye halve a spelling chequer
It came with my pea sea
It plainly marques four my revue
Miss steaks eye kin knot sea.

Eye strike a key and type a word
And weight four it two say
Weather eye am wrong oar write
It shows me strait a weigh.

As soon as a mist ache is maid
It nose bee fore two long
And eye can put the error rite
Its rare lea ever wrong.

Eye have run this poem threw it
I am shore your pleased two no
Its letter perfect awl the weigh
My chequer tolled me sew.

Norman Vandal

 


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