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Examination essays

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1. Examination essays are a very common form of writing exercise in further and higher education. During most examinations you will have to produce written responses to a number of questions in a very limited time. This might mean writing as many as three complete essays in rapid succession, each one in as little as forty-five minutes or an hour.

2. Because of this time limitation in exams, you don’t need to write out the essay question in full on your examination script, (otherwise you will be using up valuable time). But you must indicate clearly which question you have chosen to answer.

3. Read each of your chosen questions in very close detail, paying attention to their principal topic(s). You should check the rubric for any key terms, and such instruction terms as either-or options. Pay particularly close attention to the number of examples it requires you to consider in your answer.

4. Write a brief plan or a list of topics you will cover on the left-hand page of the examination booklet. This will show the examiner what you are setting out to consider. Such a layout has the advantage that you can change it or make additions whilst you are writing the essay. If you do not complete your answer, you might be given some credit for your plan.

5. Write your answers to the questions on the right-hand pages of the booklet only (unless you are instructed to do otherwise). Leave the left-hand pages blank. These blank pages can be used for making any later additions or alterations to your answer if necessary, giving some indication of where the extra material should be inserted.

6. You will not be expected to produce work of the depth or quality required in a normal coursework essay. However, you should make every effort to write clearly and concisely. Try to give your answer a firm structure.

7. You will not be expected to quote from memory extensive details of the texts and materials you have been studying. However, you should be as precise as possible. Avoid any impression of sloppiness or uncertainty.

8. If you make any mistakes of fact or grammar, do not be afraid to correct them. Do this as neatly and clearly as possible. If you find that you have wandered from the point of the argument for instance, it is quite acceptable to cross out a whole paragraph.

9. If you discover that you have missed out a vital earlier part of your argument, it is possible to go back, write out the missing part on a left-hand page, and indicate with an arrow where it belongs.

10. In ‘open book’ examinations you are allowed to take texts or course materials with you into the examination room. Do not spend too much time searching for information or suitable quotations. Quite apart from the valuable time this may consume, it is far more important that you construct your own argument. The secondary material is only used as supportive evidence or illustration.

11. If you do locate suitable quotations, you should avoid quoting them at too great a length. They might seem very relevant as a support for your case, but remember that the general requirement of most examinations is that you should produce your own argument in response to a question.

12. When you have finished answering the questions, even if there is time to spare, avoid the temptation to hand in your work and leave the examination room. Such time is much better used in checking through your work. Correct any factual errors and slips in punctuation or grammar.

© Roy Johnson 2003

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Excellent Dissertations!

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advanced study and research skills as simple notes

Once you’ve got your first degree, it’s often assumed that you will know exactly what to do in any post-graduate research work. That’s not usually true, and books like Excellent Dissertations! are helping to rectify the deficiency. Peter Levin’s approach is to break everything down into the simplest possible units. The most important characteristic of this book is that it is short and gets straight to the point. He offers useful checklists of what examiners are looking for in the successful dissertation.

Excellent Dissertations!These are likely to be the same, no matter what your subject – clear methodology, firm structure, and attention to detail. In my experience, most people writing long projects and dissertations find all these quite hard to produce. That’s why this sort of advice is useful. He helps you to make the distinction between a project and a dissertation, between the research and the writing up of results. He shows you how to explore the existing literature on your subject – which is different than writing a literature review – often another popular writing task in HE, This is dealt with separately in some detail in a chapter of its own.

There’s advice on how to compile a list of sources accurately, and he gives you useful tips such as starting to create your bibliography right from the start.

writing a literature review when you aren’t yet on top of your material is one of the most mind-numbing, brain-deadening, sleep-inducing activities known to students

There’s a separate chapter on methodology, which can be anything from a technique, a procedure, a hypothesis, to a philosophic argument. And if you are stuck for ideas, he shows you how to choose a subject or topic for the dissertation – with examples.

He looks at the management of the project in terms of your time – how to plan, what do first, how to keep going when things get rough.

At the end of the book – and I think this is the right place for it – there is advice on planning your project outline, editing your drafts, and conforming to the academic styles of referencing and producing bibliographies.

My only criticism of this guide is that it needs lists of further reading, web references, and an index. Maybe these can be added if there’s a second edition.

© Roy Johnson 2005

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Peter Levin, Excellent Dissertations!, Maidenhead: Open University Press, 2005, pp.122, ISBN: 0335218229

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Facebook the missing manual

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complete guide to social networking

Facebook is flavour of the year in social networking terms right now. It didn’t start until 2004, and it already boasts a billion subscribers, with a user base which is claimed to be slightly more adult than that of My Space. But when you’ve posted all those snaps of yourself getting drunk at the parties – did you know that it’s quite difficult to take them down again just before that vital job interview? If you’re going to use Facebook and take it seriously, you need a guidance manual, and there hasn’t been one – until now. Facebook: the missing manual takes you through the whole process, step by step, from registering and creating your profile to joining networks and finding friends. And every one of those steps is spelled out in a commendably clear manner.

Facebook - The Missing ManualAuthor Emily Veer also reminds you at every stage that the attraction of being able to see the private details of other people’s lives means conversely that they can see yours. You should therefore think carefully about the information you make public.

Once you’ve made or located your friends, there’s a number of different ways of contacting them which are more subtle than a simple email message. You can ‘poke’ people (nudge them), ‘write on walls’ (make public statements inviting a response), and even send gifts. News feeds and blogs are built into the system, and you can participate in ‘groups’.

These groups can be based on a shared interest or hobby (physical astronomy or knitting) something you have in common (your old school), or even the locality where you live. Interestingly however, you are only allowed to join one group based on geographical location – so tough luck for second home owners.

Those are the main Facebook elements: next come the extensions to these basic functions. There’s a system of listing social (real world) events where you can arrange to meet friends. Then there’s a market place where you can place ads (which Facebook calls ‘listings’) so you can sell unwanted items (as on eBay) or buy from other people – all the while checking their credentials via what they post about themselves.

There’s also a system for job-finding and hiring people, or you can use Facebook’s bulletin boards and ‘notes’ feature to work on collaborative projects. And as on many other popular software systems, there are now free add-on applications (widgets and plug-ins) which can add functionality to the basic set-up.

The last section of the book returns, very responsibly, to the issue of privacy. Apart from showing you how to configure the advanced settings of your account, Veer recommends applying a simple rule: ‘Don’t put anything on view which you wouldn’t want your mother or your boss to know about you.” And remember that although at the time of writing Facebook is going through a re-design, it’s still very difficult to remove anything, once it’s up there.

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© Roy Johnson 2010

E.A. Vander Veer, Facebook: the missing manual, Sebastopol (CA): O’Reilly, 2nd edition 2010, pp.272, ISBN: 144938014X

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Footnotes in essays

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1. When you offer quotations from other people’s work in an essay, the sources of the information may sometimes be given in footnotes printed at the bottom of the page. In modern word-processors footnotes can be added automatically. However, you should use this facility with care and restraint.

2. A bracketed number should be placed, as A.B. Smith suggests, ‘normally at the end of the sentence in which the reference is made’, and successive references are then given the next higher number. (1)

3. The number may be placed after a specific word if necessary, or at a break in the sense of the sentence.

4. Sometimes the footnote may be used to add an aside or to offer a comment on something which is only obliquely related to the topic in question. (2)

5. If a direct quotation is being used, the reference in the footnote should allow a reader to trace the source of the information if necessary. That is, you should give details of author, title, publisher, and date of publication, then page number. (If you are using the Harvard system of notation, remember that the date follows the author’s name.)

6. Successive quotations from the same source may be indicated by using the op. cit. and ibid. system of abbreviations. Alternatively, use the short-title system.

7. This system of footnoting can become extremely complicated and difficult to use – particularly if you wish to make changes. The addition of one new quotation in the middle of the essay can throw the whole system out of order. [If you are writing or typing it is difficult to know how much room to allow for the footnotes, and once the page is full you cannot add more.]

Footnotes

8. There are other reasonable arguments against using footnotes. The most important is that by their very nature they interrupt the flow of your argument. It is very difficult for a reader to resist the inducement to glance to the bottom of the page – no matter how lightweight the remarks which are placed there.

9. The easiest solution to these problems is to present this information as endnotes. These are given on a separate sheet at the end of your essay. This system is much easier to use, and additions or corrections can be more easily made when producing the final draft.

10. The general tendency in academic writing has recently been to offer endnotes rather than footnotes. This is because the printing of footnotes in academic publications is very costly. However, the automatic footnoting facility on modern word-processors might reverse this trend.

Footnotes

1. A.B. Smith, How to Use Footnotes Correctly, Manchester: Imaginary Press, 1999, p.368.

2. This system can easily become very unwieldy, even though it is obviously convenient for the reader. If the notes are no more than bibliographical information on your sources, the effect will be slightly irritating.

© Roy Johnson 2003

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Full Marks punctuation for scientists

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advice on punctuation for scientific and technical writing

Do scientists and technical writers need special advice on punctuation? Well, in one sense – who doesn’t? John Kirkman sets out here to answer what he describes as ‘the queries raised most frequently by practitioners in computing, engineering, medicine, and science as they grapple with day-to-day tasks in writing and editing’. So, it’s a guide based on practical experience, and probably the better for it. Punctuation for Scientists is a specialist style guide aimed at practicioners in these disciplines.

Punctuation for scientistsThere is an introduction explaining why good punctuation is necessary. This is slightly more complex than it needs to be, and might more usefully been placed at the end of the book. But after that he gets down to a simple explanation of the basics – apostrophes, capitals, colons, commas, full stops, hyphens, and quotation marks. The advice might be aimed at technical authors, but there’s no reason why other writers shouldn’t profit from it.

One of the strengths of the book is that it has plenty of practical examples. Another is that John Kirkman has spent quite some time teaching in the USA, and he offers UK/US equivalents wherever appropriate, which gives the guide some added value for those who need to keep such matters in mind.

On the whole, he wisely avoids the jargon of grammar in his explanations, but there’s rather a lot of intrusive first person singular (which doesn’t always inspire confidence) and some of the advice is expressed in terms which are likely to confuse the very people it is written for:

English teachers may have told you that you should always signal restrictive intention by starting your relative clause with that…

Of course one might quibble with some of his recommendations (are continuous capitals ever necessary?) but he offers very sensible and non-dogmatic advice on issues such as the use of the hyphen in terms like ‘re-activate’, ‘de-energise’, and ‘re-adjust’, and he quite rightly alerts his readers to the different names used for brackets, parentheses, and braces in the UK, the US, and non-scientific writing. To a beginner this might seem like pedantry, but ultimately it’s the stuff of which accuracy and scholarship is made.

There are three appendices – one on paragraphing, one on word division (hyphenation at line ending) and one on differences between UK and US English. There’s a brief bibliography, a full index, and by current book price standards, it’s dirt cheap.

© Roy Johnson 2000

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John Kirkman, Full Marks: Advice on punctuation for scientific and technical writing, (3rd edn) Wiltshire: Ramsbury, 1999, pp.115, ISBN: 0952176246

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Full stops in essays

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1. Full stops in essays (a full stop is sometimes called a ‘period’) are used at the end of complete sentences – like this one.

2. The only common exception to this rule occurs when the sentence is a question or an exclamation (both of which should be avoided in academic essays).

Is this question really necessary?
What a mess!

Notice that both these marks of punctuation have their own built-in full stop.

3. The stop is also used following abbreviations:

ibid.     No. 1     ff.     e.g.

4. The stop is not necessary following common titles which are shortened forms of a word (technically, contractions):

Dr     Mr     St     Mme

5. Full stops are not necessary after the initial capital letters commonly used as abbreviations for the titles of organisations and countries:

NATO     BBC     UNESCO     USA

6. They are not used where the initial letters of a standard work of reference is used as an abbreviated title:

OED [Oxford English Dictionary]
DNB [Dictionary of National Biography]
PMLA [Papers of the Modern Languages Association]

7. No full stop is required if a sentence ends with a title or an abbreviation which contains its own punctuation:

He is the editor of Which?

She gave her address as ‘The Manor, Wilts.’

8. Full stops should not be used after titles, headings, or sub-headings.

Introduction
The Turn of the Screw
Industrial Policy Report

9. The stop is normally placed inside quotation marks but outside a parenthesis:

“What joy we had that particular day.”
Profits declined (despite increased sales).

10. However, if the quotation is part of another statement, or the parenthesis is a complete sentence, the full stop goes inside:

Mrs Higginbottam whispered “They’re coming”.

There was an earthquake in Osaka. (Another had occurred in Tokyo the year previously.)

© Roy Johnson 2003

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Generalizing in essays

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1. You should avoid generalizing in essays. It works against the spirit of academic inquiry, and leads away from precision and accuracy. Instead, it leads towards sloppy thinking and the sort of empty prejudice which fills tabloid newspapers.

2. Generalizing often arises from attempts to avoid the first person mode, or from misguided efforts to appear rather grandiose in style.

‘Encountering Katherine Mansfield’s well-sculpted prose, the reader immediately feels that …’

3. As a substitute for ‘I feel …’ this is both clumsy and unacceptable. It suggests that all readers will respond in the same way and that there is only one possible response to the subject in question.

4. Try to avoid this expression and all its variations, such as ‘the reader becomes involved with…’ and ‘the reader’s attention is gained … ‘.

5. Another common form of generalizing arises when a specific example is discussed as if it were a general truth. It might be tempting to say ‘Thus Marx’s work shows us that …’ However, this suggests that you have read everything Marx ever wrote – which is probably not the case.

6. Variations of this approach occur in phrases such as ‘Women in the nineteenth century were all …’ and ‘The French have always been a nation which finds it impossible to …’.

7. Whatever the conclusions to these two statements, they are making claims about every woman in the nineteenth century and the entire population of France. Neither statement is likely to be true, because there will be so many exceptions.

8. The solution to this problem (in both cases) is to be more accurate and precise. This is a matter of clear thinking rather than written style – but it is at this point that the two subjects intersect.

9. If you wish to make such a claim but do not have exact numbers or percentages – then you should be more cautious and modest. You could at least say ‘Many women in the nineteenth century were …’ and ‘Many French people seem to …’.

10. Keep in mind that most essay assignments are asking you to deal with the specific details of your subject. You will gain more credit for claims which are modest yet accurately supported, than ones which are grandiose but unproven.

© Roy Johnson 2003

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Generating ideas for essays

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1. Generating ideas is a useful preliminary stage when faced with an essay writing task. Start by ‘brainstorming’ the subject or the topic(s) concerned. This is often a good way to produce material for planning your answer.

2. Keep in mind that it is a preliminary stage in the essay writing process. It is designed to supply you with ideas, topics, and material for preparing the essay.

3. Take a sheet of blank paper and write in the middle of it the subject, topic(s), or the question concerned. Then, write down everything that comes into your mind which is connected with the question or the subject. Do this without editing or questioning your thoughts in any way.

4. This should be done in note form, single words, or with very brief reminders. Do not try to write out grammatically complete sentences.

5. Give your thoughts a chance to flow freely. Use one-word triggers,
abbreviations, or even symbols. Write down even trivial or vaguely associated items. They might help you to make connections with other items which are more centrally important to the subject.

6. When you have finished doing this, your task will be to make some sense of the topics or the ideas you have produced. You will need to put this material in some sort of order. This process is often known as categorizing.

7. Prior to that stage however you might first look over what you have written down. Eliminate anything which is not connected to the subject in question.

8. Be as rigorous as possible at this stage. Keep asking yourself “Are these arguments or topics directly relevant to what the question is asking for?”

© Roy Johnson 2003

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Getting Published: guide for lecturers

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insider tips for putting academic writing into print

We all know that in the present climate of academic writing, it’s a case of publish – or perish. The stress on doing ‘research’ then getting published is almost the only way to ‘get on’. This book tells you how to do it. Despite the dubious imperatives, Jerry Wellington starts out by looking at the huge variety of positive reasons why people write and publish – as well as the numerous fears which might prevent others from doing so. He argues largely in favour of publishing in established, printed journals on the grounds that they offer the author more credence and protection – though there’s no mention of the amazingly small number of people who ever read them.

academic writingNext comes advice in taking account of the publication in which your writing will appear, its readership, and most crucially the type of article or review and how it will best fit the editor’s requirements. There’s a long section on ‘the writing process’ based on interviews with people who describe their approaches (the planners and the improvisers) as well as their reactions to peer review and criticism. You are certain to find somebody in here who shares your own approach. He describes what to write about, and even offers a checklist on how to be original.

He then describes the process of submitting an article for publication – both from the writer’s and publisher’s point of view. Much of this is taken up with the pros and cons of the peer review process.

Then comes the case of publishing in book form. After warning quite rightly that you shouldn’t write a word until you have a contract, he then shows you how to prepare a publication proposal in great detail.

He throws in some observations and tips on the techniques of writing – how to plan and structure your work; how to edit and re-write what you produce; and how to develop a sense of ‘good writing’.

Finally he looks at future possible trends in publishing – which focus largely on electronic journals and what’s called ‘self-archiving’. Anyone interested in this development would do well to look at the work of Steven Harnad in this field.

And for those who want to take the subject seriously, this book could profitably read alongside Peter Wood’s Successful Writing for Qualitative Researchers.

I wrote this review on the day the UK government announced it would allow the formation of new non-research universities. So the rules of the game may well be changing soon. For most people however, the steps to getting published in the academic world will remain the same; and they are all covered here.

© Roy Johnson 2004

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Jerry Wellington, Getting Published: a guide for lecturers and researchers, London: Routledge, 2003, pp.136, ISBN: 0415298476

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Glossary of essay instruction terms

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Essay instruction termscommon terms used in essay questions

1. Instruction terms are words commonly used in essay questions. They instruct or direct you in the approach you should take towards the proposition of the question.

2. The exact meaning of these terms will vary depending upon the subject being studied. The following give some idea of what they normally mean for essays and examination questions.

3. Think carefully about the meaning of these terms in relation to the remainder of the question. Even though you might feel confident, do not become blasé or inattentive. Sometimes even experienced students forget the important difference between Compare and Contrast.

4. Try to understand exactly what an instruction is asking you to do – but be reasonable. Don’t look for problems where they might not exist. If in doubt, ask your tutor.

account for
Explain the reasons for, giving an indication of all relevant circumstances. Not to be confused with ‘Give an account of’ which asks only for a detailed description.

analyse
Study in depth, identifying and describing in detail the main characteristics.

argue
Put forward a proposition, then illustrate it, discuss its significance, and defend it against possible counter-charges.

assess
Examine closely, with a view to ‘weighing up’ a particular situation. Consider in a balanced way the strengths and weaknesses or points for and against a proposition. In conclusion, state your judgement clearly.

comment
State clearly and in moderate fashion your opinions on the material in question. Support your views with reference to suitable evidence or explanations.

compare
Look for similarities and differences between two or more things.

contrast
Deliberately single out and emphasise the differences and dissimilarities between two or more things.

criticise
Give your judgement about a statement or a body of work; explore its implications, discussing all the evidence which is available. Be specific in your examination.

define
Set down the precise meaning of something. Be prepared to state the limits of the definition. Take note of multiple meanings if they exist.

describe
Give a detailed and comprehensive account of something.

discuss
Investigate and examine by careful argument. Explore the implications and the advantages or disadvantages. Debate the case and possibly consider any alternatives. This is probably the most common instruction term. It is inviting you to say something interesting in response to the topic in question. You can choose your own approach.

evaluate
Make an appraisal of the worth of something in the light of its truth or utility. Emphasise the views of authorities as well as your personal estimation.

explain
Make plain. Account for. Clarify, interpret, and spell out the material you present, giving reasons for important features or developments.

how far …
Similar to questions which begin ‘To what extent…‘. You are expected to make your case or present your argument, whilst showing an awareness that alternate or even contradictory explanations may exist. Careful assessment and weighing of evidence are called for.

identify
Pick out what you regard as the key features of something, perhaps making clear the criteria you use in doing so.

illustrate
Make clear and explicit by the discussion of concrete examples.

justify
Show adequate grounds for decisions or conclusions. Answer or refute the main objections likely to be made against them.

outline
Give the main features or the general principles of a subject, omitting minor details and emphasising structure or arrangement.

relate
Show how things are connected, and how they possibly affect, cause, or resemble each other.

review
Make a survey of, examining the subject critically.

state
Present the main points in brief, clear form.

summarise
Give a concise account of the main points of a matter, omitting details and examples.

trace
Follow the development or history of a topic from some point of origin.

© Roy Johnson 2004

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