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New Oxford Dictionary of English

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new single-volume compilation based on modern usage

The New Oxford Dictionary of English is a one-volume giant from Oxford University Press and a departure from their normal practice. Instead of being based on other dictionaries, it’s a completely new selection of words, compiled after in-depth analysis of computerized databases of contemporary English. The emphasis is very much on current relevance. Each word is defined first by its modern meaning, as used by the majority of people. Rulings are given on tricky questions of usage – [due to is not the same as because of, for instance]. These provide advice on old and new problems.

New Oxford Dictionary of English This populist approach may not please traditionalists, but the dictionary is certainly very user-friendly – and that’s in there too. The other principal novelty is the inclusion of encyclopedia-type entries. So, for instance, opening randomly at the letter ‘P’ – you are offered ‘perquisite’, followed by potted biographies of Charles Perrault, Fred Perry, and Persephone; then a micro-history of Persia, and an explanation of correct usage for the ‘personal pronoun’. I suspect these will make this a popular choice for those people who want a serious dictionary and a useful general reference book all in one.

Brief notes on word history explain the linguistic roots of words and tell the story of how a word’s meaning and form have changed over time. Modern pronunciations are also given, using the internationally recognized pronunciation system. A rapid-reference page design separates out parts of speech, word histories, and phrases.

This new revised edition embraces the OUP’s latest style of having the headword printed in a bold san-serif font, with the explanation which follows in Times Roman (serif). Extra notes then revert to san-serif in a grey box. All this variety makes it something of a typographic jumble – but it is easy to use. Here’s what a typical entry looks like:

ear 1 > noun the organ of hearing and balance in humans and other vertebrates, especially the external part of this

• an organ sensitive to sound in other animals. •
[in sing.] an ability to recognise, appreciate, and reproduce sounds, especially music or language: an ear for rhythm and melody. • used to refer to a person’s willingness to listen and pay attention to something: she offers a sympathetic ear to worried pet owners.

The ear of a mammal is composed of three parts. The outer or external ear consists of a fleshy external flap and a tube leading to the eardrum or tympanum. The middle ear is an air-filled cavity connected to the throat, containing three small linked bones that transmit vibrations from the eardrum to the inner ear. The inner ear is a complex fluid-filled labyrinth including the spiral cochlea (where vibrations are converted to nerve impulses) and the three semi-circular canals (forming the organ of balance). The ears of other vertebrates are broadly similar.

– PHRASES be all ears informal
be listening eagerly and attentively. bring something (down) about one’s ears – bring something, especially misfortune, on oneself; she brought her world crashing about her ears. one’s ears are burning – one is subconsciously aware of being talked about or criticized. grin (or smile) from ear to ear: smile broadly. have something coming out of one’s ears: have a substantial or excessive amount of something: that man’s got money coming out of his ears. have someone’s ear have access to and influence with someone: he claimed to have the prime minister’s ear. have (or keep) an ear to the ground – be well informed about events and trends. in (at) one ear and out (at) the other – heard but disregarded or quickly forgotten: whatever you tell him seems to go in one ear and out the other. listen with half an ear not give one’s full attention. be out on one’s ear informal be dismissed or ejected ignominiously. up to one’s ears in informal very busy or deeply involved in: I’m up to my ears in work here.
— DERIVATIVES eared adjective [in combination] long-eared, earless adjective.
— ORIGIN Old English ëare, of Germanic origin; related to Dutch oor and German Ohr, from an Indo-European root shared by Latin auris and Greek ous.
ear 2> noun the seed-bearing head or spike of a cereal plant.
• N. Amer. a head of maize.
— ORIGIN Old English ëar, of Germanic origin; related to Dutch aar and German Ähre

© Roy Johnson 2005

New Oxford Dictionary of English   Buy the book at Amazon UK

New Oxford Dictionary of English   Buy the book at Amazon US

The New Oxford Dictionary of English, 2nd revised edn, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005, pp.2010, ISBN: 0198610572

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New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary

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two-volume reference dictionary with etymologies

When checking a word, I usually reach first for the Concise Oxford – because it’s right in front of me on the desk. You can pick it up in one hand. If that doesn’t give the answer, I go to the New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary. This involves a trip to the bookcase, because it’s in two volumes – and they’re heavy. The term ‘Shorter’ for this publication is almost misleading, because it’s a big, serious, scholarly work of reference. It’s only shorter in being an abridged version of the monumental Oxford English Dictionary.

New Shorter Oxford Dictionary In recent editions however, the material draws on the OED’s ongoing revision, as well as its own independent research program. The entries are slightly abbreviated, but still rich in historical etymology. This is a dictionary for those concerned with lexicological scholarship – people who need to know both the origin of a term, and how it has been used in printed history since the Renaissance. The headword is recorded in all its possible forms, and the linguistic, grammatical, and bibliographical apparatus surrounding it is rendered via a code of abbreviations. A typical entry might run as follows:

Endeavour (ende’vðr) sb. ME. [app. f. next vb.] 1. The action of endeavouring; action directed to obtain an object; a strenuous attempt. †2. Philos. Used by Hobbs: =L. conatus [see quote.] -1667.
1. On this high e. The light of praise shall shine WORDSW. Phr. To do one’s endeavour(s): to do all one can; My best endeauours shall be done herein Merch. V. II.ii.182. 2. These small beginnings of Motion, within the Body of Man…are commonly called E.  HOBBES
Endeavour (ende’vðr) v. ME.[f. EN–1+DEVOIR sb. ; cf. F. se mettre en devoir de faire quelque chose to make it one’s duty to do something; hence, to endeavour.] †1. refl. To exert onself -1655; †trans. to exert (one’s power, etc.) -1642. †intr. for refl. To exert oneself; to direct one’s efforts -1624. 3. intr. To try, strive, make an effort for a specified object; to attempt strenuously.   The only mod. sense.) 1594.   4. trans. To use effort for; to attempt (now arch.) 1581; †to try to fulfil (a Law) MILT.
3. To e. to compromise matters FROUDE.   To e. at eminence JOHNSON, after more riches MILL.   4. To e. the extirpation of Popery CLARENDON.   Hence Endea’vourer one who endeavours; an aspirant; also spec., a member of the Christian Endeavour Society founded in U.S. in 1881.   †Endea’vourment, endeavour.

You can see from this that it illustrates definitions with quotations which show precisely how the meanings of words have changed over the centuries. Each entry provides a wealth of information, including history and meaning, pronunciation, etymology, definitions, variant spellings, irregular inflections, quotations, idiomatic phrases and a record of the word’s use. Some entries run to almost two columns on the page.

Thousands upon thousands of changing meanings are followed through history, illustrated by more than 83,000 quotations, from Benjamin Franklin to Lord Byron, and Jane Austen to Ricky Gervais.

The new edition has 600,000 definitions, 2,500 new words since the last edition in 2003, and 83,000 illustrative quotations. There’s a full index of the authors cited, a guide to pronunciation, and it comes in either the two-volume printed edition, or on a CD-ROM.

The obvious advantage of the CD version is that you can use the SEARCH feature – and the program also searches by anagram and by rhyme, by quotation and by etymology. Perusing the headword group is like flipping the pages of the book version. You can also copy the CD sub-directories onto your hard disk, which means you can access the material without loading the compact disk. This improves performance, and leaves your CD drive free for other tasks.

If you don’t want the complete Oxford English Dictionary this is the next best thing. It will last you a lifetime. In fact you’ll be able to pass it on to your children and grandchildren.

© Roy Johnson 2007

New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary   Buy the book at Amazon UK

New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary   Buy the book at Amazon US

The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary (in 2 volumes) Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007, pp.3800, ISBN: 0199206872

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Nona Vincent

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tutorial, commentary, study resources, and web links

Nona Vincent first appeared in English Illustrated Magazine in February—March 1892, then later reprinted in The Real Thing and Other Tales (London and New York, 1893). The other stories in the collection were The Chaperon, Greville Fane, and Sir Dominick Ferrand, which also has the title Jersey Villas.

Nona Vincent

Walter Sickert (1869-1942)

Nona Vincent – critical comment

At the time of writing this tale Henry James was in the midst of his own theatrical ambitions, writing plays in the hope of creating a name for himself as a major dramatist. His hopes came to nothing. After five years, his play Guy Domville was booed off stage on its first night.

Nevertheless, James made use of his experiences, and Nona Vincent contains many elelemnts of theatrical life – the difficult search for promotional backing, the stress of rehearsals, the issue of dramatic interpretation, and even the author’s embarrassed curtain call on the first night of his big success.

As a glimpse into the world of the theatre, it is witty and charming, but as a tale its parts do not hang together as well as they might. For instance, there is very little connection between the first part of the story and subsequent events in the second.

For instance there is an unexplained difference between Violet’s meetings with Mrs Alsager. Violet is visited by Mrs Alsager in Part II and provides what is the inspiration for Violet’s much-improved interpretation of her role as Nona Vincent. But Violet has already met Mrs Alsager in the first part of the story, and no reason is provided why the second meeting should have such a dramatic effect.

Wayworth seems to be depicted in the first part of the tale as a failure. He flits from one literary issue to another. Initially he is concerned with literary form, then scenic idea, and finally dramatic form. He is also unsuccessful for two years, which is realistic, but has little connection with his huge success in part two of the tale. He even writes a second play, which has no relevance to the overall story.

The tale also has a very conventional happy ending – with Wayworth’s marriage to the principal lady – though it is interesting to note the fact that she then abandons the stage. This perhaps reflects the fact that even as late at the end of the nineteenth century, acting was seen as a slightly improper occupation for women.

Nona Vincent – study resources

Nona Vincent The Complete Works of Henry James – Kindle edition – Amazon UK

Nona Vincent The Complete Works of Henry James – Kindle edition – Amazon US

Nona Vincent Complete Stories 1892—1898 – Library of America – Amazon UK

Nona Vincent Complete Stories 1892—1898 – Library of America – Amazon US

Nona Vincent The Complete Tales of Henry James – Volume 8 – Digireads reprint UK

Nona Vincent Nona Vincent – eBook formats at Project Gutenberg

Red button The Cambridge Companion to Henry James – Amazon UK

Nona Vincent

Nona Vincent – plot summary

Part I.
Allan Wayworth is a young aspiring dramatist who shares his literary enthusiasms with Mrs Alsager, the wife of a rish newspaper magnate. When he writes a play, it appears that the female lead character (Nona Vincent) is a thinly veiled portrait of Mrs Alsager. She is keen to help him find a theatrical promoter, but after a year with no success, he is reduced to no more than hack work, writing encyclopedia entries. He writes a second play, but that fares no better.

When a manager finally agrees to take up the play, Wayworth attends rehearsals, but is disappointed that the leading lady Violet Grey does not appear to fit her role and does not understand what effects Wayworth wishes to create via her character.

Mrs Alsager contrives a meeting with Violet then reveals to Wayworth that the young girl is in love with him. When he next meets Violet she tells him the same thing about Mrs Alsager.

Part II.
Wayworth begins to feel protective about Violet and has conflicted feelings regarding her future. Mrs Alsager manifests jealous feelings towards Violet. Tensions rise during the rehearsal period, but the first night is success. Violet however feels that she is inadequate for the principal role.

The next day Wayworth has a dreamlike vision of his fictional heroine Nona Vincent, and at that night’s performance, Violet puts on an entirely new interpretation of the role which is a big critical success.

Violet then reveals to Wayworth that she too had a visitation at the same time as his – but in the real form of Mrs Alsager, who provided the living substance and model she needed to understand, appreciate, and act Nona Vincent.

The play runs for two hundred performances, Wayworth marries Violet, and she retires from the stage. But Mrs Alsager continues to attend all Wayworth’s subsequent plays.

Principal characters
Allan Wayworth an aspiring young dramatist (28)
Mrs Alsager a cultural enthusiast (50)
Mr Alsager her much older husband, a rich newspaper magnate, who does not appear
Mr Loder a theatrical manager
Miss Violet Grey a young actress

Henry James's study

Henry James’s study

Further reading

Biographical

Red button Theodora Bosanquet, Henry James at Work, University of Michigan Press, 2007.

Red button F.W. Dupee, Henry James: Autobiography, Princeton University Press, 1983.

Red button Leon Edel, Henry James: A Life, HarperCollins, 1985.

Red button Philip Horne (ed), Henry James: A Life in Letters, Viking/Allen Lane, 1999.

Red button Henry James, The Letters of Henry James, Adamant Media Corporation, 2001.

Red button Fred Kaplan, Henry James: The Imagination of Genius, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999

Red button F.O. Matthieson (ed), The Notebooks of Henry James, Oxford University Press, 1988.

Critical commentary

Red button Ian F.A. Bell, Henry James and the Past, London: Palgrave Macmillan, 1993.

Red button Millicent Bell, Meaning in Henry James, Cambridge (MA): Harvard University Press, 1993.

Red button Harold Bloom (ed), Modern Critical Views: Henry James, Chelsea House Publishers, 1991.

Red button Kirstin Boudreau, Henry James’s Narrative Technique, Macmillan, 2010.

Red button Daniel Mark Fogel, A Companion to Henry James Studies, Greenwood Press, 1993.

Red button Jonathan Freedman, The Cambridge Companion to Henry James, Cambridge University Press, 1998.

Red button Roger Gard (ed), Henry James: The Critical Heritage, London: Routledge, 1968.

Red button Tessa Hadley, Henry James and the Imagination of Pleasure, Cambridge University Press, 2009.

Red button Richard A. Hocks, Henry James: A study of the short fiction, New York: Twayne Publishers, 1990.

Red button Colin Meissner, Henry James and the Language of Experience, Cambridge University Press, 2009

Red button John Pearson (ed), The Prefaces of Henry James, Pennsylvania State University Press, 1993.

Red button Richard Poirer, The Comic Sense of Henry James, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1967.

Red button Ruth Yeazell (ed), Henry James: A Collection of Critical Essays, Longmans, 1994.

Other works by Henry James

Henry James Washington SquareWashington Square (1880) is a superb early short novel, It’s the tale of a young girl whose future happiness is being controlled by her strict authoritarian (but rather witty) father. She is rather reserved, but has a handsome young suitor. However, her father disapproves of him, seeing him as an opportunist and a fortune hunter. There is a battle of wills – all conducted within the confines of their elegant New York town house. Who wins out in the end? You will probably be surprised by the outcome. This is a masterpiece of social commentary, offering a sensitive picture of a young woman’s life.
Henry James Washington Square Buy the book from Amazon UK
Henry James Washington Square Buy the book from Amazon US

Henry James The Aspern PapersThe Aspern Papers (1888) is a psychological drama set in Venice which centres on the tussle for control of a great writer’s correspondence. An elderly lady, ex-lover of the writer, seeks a husband for her daughter. But the potential purchaser of the papers is a dedicated bachelor. Money is also at stake – but of course not discussed overtly. There is a refined battle of wills between them. Who will win in the end? As usual, James keeps the reader guessing. The novella is a masterpiece of subtle narration, with an ironic twist in its outcome. This collection of stories also includes three of his accomplished long short stories – The Private Life, The Middle Years, and The Death of the Lion.
Henry James The Aspern Papers Buy the book from Amazon UK
Henry James The Aspern Papers Buy the book from Amazon US

Henry James The Spoils of PoyntonThe Spoils of Poynton (1896) is a short novel which centres on the contents of a country house, and the question of who is the most desirable person to inherit it via marriage. The owner Mrs Gereth is being forced to leave her home to make way for her son and his greedy and uncultured fiancee. Mrs Gereth develops a subtle plan to take as many of the house’s priceless furnishings with her as possible. But things do not go quite according to plan. There are some very witty social ironies, and a contest of wills which matches nouveau-riche greed against high principles. There’s also a spectacular finale in which nobody wins out.
Henry James The Spoils of Poynton Buy the book from Amazon UK
Henry James The Spoils of Poynton Buy the book from Amazon US

Henry James – web links

Henry James web links Henry James at Mantex
Biographical notes, study guides, tutorials on the Complete Tales, book reviews. bibliographies, and web links.

Henry James web links The Complete Works
Sixty books in one 13.5 MB Kindle eBook download for £1.92 at Amazon.co.uk. The complete novels, stories, travel writing, and prefaces. Also includes his autobiographies, plays, and literary criticism – with illustrations.

Henry James web links The Ladder – a Henry James website
A collection of eTexts of the tales, novels, plays, and prefaces – with links to available free eTexts at Project Gutenberg and elsewhere.

Red button A Hyper-Concordance to the Works
Japanese-based online research tool that locates the use of any word or phrase in context. Find that illusive quotable phrase.

Henry James web links The Henry James Resource Center
A web site with biography, bibliographies, adaptations, archival resources, suggested reading, and recent scholarship.

Henry James web links Online Books Page
A collection of online texts, including novels, stories, travel writing, literary criticism, and letters.

Henry James web links Henry James at Project Gutenberg
A major collection of eTexts, available in a variety of eBook formats.

Henry James web links The Complete Letters
Archive of the complete correspondence (1855-1878) work in progress – published by the University of Nebraska Press.

Henry James web links The Scholar’s Guide to Web Sites
An old-fashioned but major jumpstation – a website of websites and resouces.

Henry James web links Henry James – The Complete Tales
Tutorials on the complete collection of over one hundred tales, novellas, and short stories.

© Roy Johnson 2013

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Nouns – how to use them correctly

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free pages from our English Language software program

Nouns – definition

nouns Nouns are the words we use for the names of objects, feelings, states of being, natural things, and groups.

Examples
objects lamp, hat, gate, spoon, book
feelings joy, sadness, fear, anger
states of being confusion, agreement, war
natural things thunder, electricity, gravity, speed
groups herd, pack, catalogue, crowd
Use

redbtn We went to town and bought a lamp

redbtn The joy she felt was clear for all to see.

redbtn The trouble was caused by a power failure.

redbtn Thunder could be heard from a distance of three miles.

redbtn The cow with the curly horn was the most spectacular of the herd.

redbtn Nouns constitute much of the content of both speech and writing. They can usefully be categorised as follows:

  • Common nouns
  • Proper nouns
  • Abstract nouns

redbtn Common nouns. This is the term for objects such as ‘book’, ‘coat’, ‘window’, ‘apple’, ‘man’, ‘woman’.

redbtn Proper nouns. This is the term for names of people, places, days of the week, months of the year. Proper nouns are written with an initial capital letter:

John Smith November
Tuesday Buckingham Palace

redbtn Abstract nouns. This is the term for feelings such as ‘anger’, ‘joy’, ‘fear’, ‘sadness’, and for other intangible phenomena such as ‘beauty’, ‘philosophy’, ‘gravity’, ‘humour’.

redbtn Plurals of nouns are formed in a variety of ways in English.

redbtn Speech. Many nouns are made plural by the addition of a voiced /z/ or voiceless /s/ sibilant or ‘s’ sound as in tins /z/ mats /s/ sweets /s/ cows /z/

redbtn Writing. In writing the examples above would be pluralised by the simple addition of the letter ‘s’.

redbtn Other nouns require an extra syllable to form a plural, according to their use in speech or writing.

redbtn Speech. The plural of the terms ‘house’, ‘ostrich’, and ‘entrance’ are formed as follows:

hou/z/e/z/ ostrich/e/z/ entrance/z/

redbtn Writing. The written form of these plurals is constructed by adding the letter ‘s’ — except in the case of ‘ostrich’ where ‘e’ and ‘s’ are added.

redbtn In these cases, the written version is echoing the spoken word where, for ease of articulation, a vowel sound is added when forming the plural.

redbtn Irregular plurals. English has many words which are borrowings from other languages. The result of this is a number of irregular plurals:

SINGULAR PLURAL
analysis analyses
crisis crises
appendix appendices
narcissus narcissi
amoeba amoebae

redbtn English also has compounds such as the following, called ‘plurals in the first element’:

mothers-in-law [not mother-in-laws]
spoonsful [not spoonfuls]
passers-by [not passer-byes]
courts-martial [not court-martials]

redbtn However, there are also examples of the converse. That is, where the plural is formed in the final element in terms such as:

girlfriends grownups takeoffs

redbtn Archaic plurals. Some plurals are formed by the addition of ‘en’, because of the origin of the word in Old English:

children oxen brethren

redbtn The term ‘chicken’ is the archaic plural of the word ‘chick’. Over the centuries however, it has come to stand for the singular. The plural is now formed by the addition of a final ‘s’ in ‘chickens’.

redbtn Collective nouns. This is the term for one single term which refers to a group of items. Many English collective nouns refer to animals. For example, flock (sheep), brace (game-birds), set (badgers), pride (lions).

redbtn Terms such as ‘den’ (of robbers) ‘team’ (of players) ‘queue’ (of people) ‘party’ (of delegates) are also collective nouns.

redbtn Participles as nouns. Some nouns are formed from verb participles. For example, it is common to refer to ‘the cleaning’ which may be done weekly.

redbtn Film-makers used this form in producing The Shining, and houses are protected by various kinds of ‘cladding’.

redbtn Noun-phrases. These are utterances which may act as subject, object or predicate in a sentence. In other words they function exactly as a single noun, but they comprise more than one word.

redbtn Here are some examples, based on one common, single noun (book)

the book
the interesting book
the book on the shelf
the book which my friend gave me

redbtn All of these noun phrases could be used to start or to finish a sentence:

The book on the shelf is the one I was looking for in the first place.

John gave me the book on the shelf.

Self-assessment quiz follows >>>

© Roy Johnson 2003

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Onomatopoeia – how to understand it

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free pages from our English Language software program

Onomatopoeia – definition

onomatopoeia Onomatopoeia is a figure of speech in which the sound of a word echoes the thing it describes.

redbtn It is a form of symbolism in sound.

Examples
buzz pop bang
swish cuckoo hissing
burble twitter sizzle
Use

redbtn Onomatopoeia is used for emphasis or stylistic effect.

redbtn It is featured very heavily in children’s rhymes and poetry in general.

redbtn It is also used extensively in advertising, as in the slogan

‘Snap, crackle, pop!’

redbtn NB! ‘Onomatopoeia’ is derived from the Greek term ‘make a word’.

redbtn ‘Onomatopoeia’ is the only example in English of a word which has a direct and intrinsic connection with the thing it describes.

redbtn For example, if we say that the boy made a ‘splash’ jumping into the pool, the noun ‘splash’ actually imitates the thing to which it refers.

redbtn ‘Splash’ is not simply an arbitrary code for the sound made when someone jumps into a swimming pool. It is an aural echo of that very thing.

redbtn The very concrete nature of onomatopoeia needs to be stressed. This applies in most cases where a word imitates a sound which we all recognise.

redbtn The English language is a coded system in which most words have a completely arbitrary link with the object or state which they describe.

redbtn For example, the word ‘house’ is a code term for the building with rooms in which we live. Similarly, ‘fear’ is a four-letter code for the unpleasant sensation of acute apprehension. [These terms are quite different in other languages.]

redbtn Onomatopoeia is thus an exceptional case because the word has at least an aural similarity with the thing it describes.

redbtn Perhaps the original symbols which comprise a pictographic language such as Chinese can be seen as a useful visual analogy with onomatopoeia. Chinese characters derive from pictures of the things they describe. They therefore have an intrinsic connection with them, just as the English words such as ‘splash’ ‘plop’ ‘bang’ ‘tinkle’ are the auditory equivalent.

redbtn Studying onomatopoeia thus highlights the ideographic nature of English and to take this to a purist extreme, we see that even the most literal use of language is only literal in a relative sense because the words themselves are at a semantic distance from the thing to which they refer.

redbtn We learn to connect the word ‘house’ with the building we call home, but we take it completely on trust because there is no essential connection there between word and phenomenon.

redbtn The same principle applies to every unit of meaning except onomatopoeic words and for that reason alone onomatopoeia is of interest to linguists.

redbtn Animal calls are evoked onomatopoeically in all languages. For example ‘cock-a-doodle-do!’ is conventionally the English representation for the crowing of a cock. Interestingly, the French represent the same phenomenon as ‘cocorico!’, which is significantly different, although logic tells us that the rooster’s cry is constant across the world.

redbtn This variation in the representation of animal calls has helped researchers into language change to chart developments in the English language. In ancient poetry, for instance, if the word ‘go’ was rhymed with ‘cuckoo’, we could be fairly sure that the pronunciation of the word ‘go’ had changed rather than the birdsong.

Self-assessment quiz follows >>>

© Roy Johnson 2003

English Language 3.0 program
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Oxford A-Z of English Usage

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short guide to intermediate language skills

Do you know the past tense of the verb to dive? Is it dived or dove? Don’t worry – most other native English speakers wouldn’t know either. The same is true of the verb to dream. Is it dreamed or dreamt? That’s slightly less of a worry – because both options are correct. This guide offers straightforward, up-to-date guidance on questions of English usage, all affecting the language we choose.

Oxford A-Z of English Usage Common confusions such as uninterested and disinterested are explained, differences between British and American practice are highlighted, and it takes a realistic attitude towards famous examples such as splitting infinitives, ending a sentence with a preposition, and when it is correct to say you and me or you and I.

There are highlighted mini-essays on issues such as case agreement, Latin plurals, and the endlessly vexed issue of -ise and -ize. Editor Jeremy Butterfield also deals with issues for writers, such as how to punctuate bulleted lists.

There’s a strong element of political correctness at work here in definitions to do with race, colour, and disability, yet he doesn’t offer alternatives to the contractions BC and AD, and he suggests that the equivalent of African-American in the UK is black, which some people might challenge.

There’s an interesting section on what he calls ‘electronic English’, and he does his best to reveal folk etymologies – explaining where and why an expression has become distorted and replaced the original – as in slight of hand, which has successfully transplanted the original sleight of hand.

He takes the trouble to distinguish terms which are often confused in English because their spellings are so similar, and they are very often pronounced almost identically – such as discrete and discreet. And he unravels words which are often mistaken for each other – such as blatant and flagrant.

I would say that this is a book for intermediate to advanced users of English – writers, editors, and students who want to make an effort to get things right. It’s the latest addition to a series which includes Oxford A-Z of Grammar and Punctuation, Oxford A-Z of Spelling, and the Oxford Guide to Plain English – all of which have been very successful.

© Roy Johnson 2007

Oxford A-Z of English Usage   Buy the book at Amazon UK

Oxford A-Z of English Usage   Buy the book at Amazon US

Jeremy Butterfield, Oxford A—Z of English Usage, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007, pp.172, ISBN: 0199231532

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Oxford Guide to Plain English

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how to simplify and clarify your writing

This is a new series from OUP – pocketbook guides on the basics of writing and language skills. They’re small, cheap, cheerful, and compact, yet authoritative – the sort of thing which I imagine would be ideal for students or the average person-in-the-street who wants to take on the first principles of improving their language skills. Oxford Guide to Plain English is written by the research director of the Plain Language Commission.

Plain EnglishIt’s presented in a lively and professional manner, and Martin Cutts uses so many real-life examples you know he’s speaking from deeply-felt practical experience. He offers quick tips for creating a clearer style, better grammar, punctuation, and layout. He explains how to avoid jargon and legalese, and how to use plain English instead. And he has no patience with sloppy communication. For instance, have you ever received an official letter like the example he quotes from the DVLA?

I again return your application for renewal of road fund licence and reiterate the correct amount is £130. I have enclosed a photocopy of your original document you will notice it clearly datestamped 2nd December, some two days after Budget day.

Four mistakes in forty-three words is not bad going for a government [in the UK] which claims it is committed to increased efficiency and clarity of communication!

He shows you how to avoid this sort of thing – and how to replace mistakes with clear meaning. There are hundreds of real examples to show how it’s done, including ‘before’ and ‘after’ examples.

There’s a good list of contemporary cliches and expressions to avoid, including the Plain English expressions which can quite easily replace them.

The basic information is very sound. Sentences twenty words or less; plain words rather than elaborate vocabulary; vigorous and active verbs rather than the passive voice; bulleted lists to explain multiple points of argument; strict but minimalist punctuation; planning as an indispensable tool to good structure; and even avoiding too many grammatical rules.

It even includes advice on writing effective emails, and as an advocate of good spatial design in written communication, I was pleased to see that there was a whole section devoted to good layout.

Good value; good advice; and good format if you want something cheap and cheerful as a start-up or a pocket reference.

© Roy Johnson 2009

Oxford Guide to Plain English   Buy the book at Amazon UK

Oxford Guide to Plain English   Buy the book at Amazon US

Martin Cutts, Oxford Guide to Plain English, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 3rd edition 2009, pp. 272, ISBN: 0199558507

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Oxford Guide to World English

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modern English language in use throughout the world

English is now effectively a global lingua franca. But even as it enlarges its influence, it is assimilated and changed by the nations where it comes to rest. Tom McArthur’s new Oxford Guide to World Englishis a survey of English both as a pre-eminent world language and as an increasingly divergent language. It is both a compendious work of reference and a very readable series of essays detailing the way in which the language is changing and growing as it spreads from one country to another.

Oxford Guide to World English Each section is structured in a similar manner. First there is a brief historical account of the region’s connection with the English language; then he offers notes and examples of peculiarities in pronunciation, grammar , and vocabulary.

These prefatory remarks are like mini-essays on language history and development. He explains how Old English became modern, how English changed when it reached America, and even how it changed as it moved westwards. He also explains the social and cultural forces which lead to the development of a language.

At the center of his five hundred pages he confronts the issues which will be of interest to the two biggest user groups – the differences between English English and American English. All the basics of ise/ize and colour/color are explained, as well as a detailed history of the expression OK. There is also coverage of the huge variety of immigrant languages which have enriched the American vocabulary.

The range of countries he covers is truly astonishing. They range from whole continents such as Australia and Africa, to tiny islands such as Tuvalu and Tristan da Cunha. He illustrates a range of dialects and languages, including UK dialects, Spanglish, Jamaican Creole, Chicano English, Maor English, and even Chinese English.

Oxford Guide to World English Even though it is based on sound scholarship, and comes with a very useful bibliography and chronology of English language development, the book is accessible for general readers, especially those interested in dialects and the history of world English. It will also be useful for students of A-level English Language in the UK and first-year undergraduates internationally; academics concerned with international English; and advanced foreign learners interested in developing an awareness of the differences in English around the world.

This is a wonderfully comprehensive resource which will appeal to anyone interested in language – and which OUP can justifiably feel proud to have produced.

Oxford Guide to World English   Buy the book at Amazon UK

Oxford Guide to World English   Buy the book at Amazon US

© Roy Johnson 2002

Tom McArthur, The Oxford Guide to World English, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002, pp.501, ISBN: 0198662483

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Oxford Modern English Grammar

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an anatomy of contemporary English language usage

Oxford Modern English Grammar is the Oxford University Press brand new and definitive guide to English grammar. It’s a book written by a leading expert in the field that covers both British and American English. and it makes use of authentic spoken and written examples. Arranged in four clear parts for ease of use, its comprehensive coverage ranges from the very basic to the most complex aspects of grammar, all of which are explained clearly yet authoritatively. As a source of reference it’s invaluable for those with an interest in the English language, undergraduate and postgraduate students, and it will be useful to anyone else who would like a clear guide to English grammar and how it is used.

Oxford Modern English GrammarThe author Bas Aarts warns that the book is descriptive, not proscriptive in approach.

Readers hoping to find confirmation that the so-called split infinitive is an odious manifestation of the decline of the English language – to give but one example of a common usage shibboleth – will be disappointed.

So – if it doesn’t provide a list of rules of what is and what’s not permissible – what does it have to offer? The answer is – an explanation of the basic principles and structures of English language as it is currently used. Arts begins by clearing the decks to establish the terms in which grammar can be discussed. And this means items as fundamental as what can be said about a single word and how it can be used – which immediately involves issues such as word classes, tense, mood, and the place in a sentence where the word is used.

Next comes the system of inflection which can modify words – which is mercifully (for non-Native learners) minimal in English language, making it easier to learn in its earlier stages at least. He also looks at the way in which new words can be formed or changed – by conversion, back-formation, clipping, and blending (he bagged the goods – recycling – flu – smog).

I was heartened to see that despite his descriptive approach, a firm emphasis was put on the necessity for a subject in a clear English statement, preferably at the start of the sentence or utterance. Statements such as deleted it manually do not begin to make any sense until they are preceded by I, she, or they.

There are entire chapters on tense and mood, which can be quite complex because of the way temporality and mood are constructed in English from strings of verbs – as in examples such as I will have been living here for five years – You might be about to realise that ….

This is a reference work, and just because it doesn’t offer proscriptive rules doesn’t mean that there are no mistakes or unacceptable uses in English. To say the painting was executed brilliant, with also vividly colours is just wrong, and no two ways about it.

There are appendices of irregular verbs (abide/abode/abided – lie/lay/lain) detailed references to sources, and suggestions for further reading on all topics. All the examples he chooses are taken from the database of the International Corpus of English held at University College London – a compilation of spoken and written English taken from living contemporary sources.

It has to be said that the coverage is thorough and rigorous, but very dry. It’s a series of internal principles which have been extracted and documented from contemporary usage. For advice on how to speak and write properly you would have to go elsewhere (such as here for instance). It’s a reference for the college library or the shelf of a linguist or a grammarian – if there are any of those around any more.

Oxford Modern English Grammar   Buy the book at Amazon UK

Oxford Modern English Grammar   Buy the book at Amazon US

© Roy Johnson 2011

Bas Aarts, Oxford Modern English Grammar, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011, pp.410, ISBN: 0199533199

Oxford Reference Grammar

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up-to-date guide to modern English grammar

This Oxford Reference Grammar guide is based on the most important chapters in Stanley Greenbaum’s authoritative work, The Oxford English Grammar. It is arranged thematically, starting from a description of the history of English language and grammar, then taking the major topics in turn – from words, phrases, and syntax, up to the point at which grammarians customarily stop – the sentence.

Oxford Reference GrammarThe explanations topics are broken up into small, easy-to-follow sections, and there is a full complement of bibliography, glossary, and comprehensive index. There is also a fussily detailed but ultimately useful numerical reference system. These are described as ‘links’ – a clear indication the influence hypertext and its language. It provides guidance on all word classes and word structures, including phrases, clauses, and sentences.

In line with contemporary attitudes to language studies, it takes a descriptive rather than a prescriptive attitude to grammar. That is, it describes how language is being used, rather than how somebody thinks it ought to be used. Each point is illustrated by quotations drawn from authentic spoken and written data. So a typical entry reads:

8.2.2 Adjectives that are predicative only

[17] Caroline is afraid Nellie’s attempts to get her to join in the nude dancing and runs off. [Jennifer Breen In Her Own Write]
[18] I was getting quite fond of him.
[19] Her office personality is a positive one; but she is not aware of this, any more than she is conscious of her breakfast-time vagueness. [W]

Many these predicative adjectives resemble verbs in their meanings: afraid ‘fear’, fond ‘like’, aware that ‘know that’.

It deals with all the standard difficulties in English, such as the issues who/whom, should/ought, that/which, and different from/to. Be warned however. Even though this is in handy paperback format, it’s not for beginners. You have to be prepared for sections labeled ‘Extraposition the postmodifier other than in the subject’, ‘Restrictive and non-restrictive modification’ and ‘Segregatory and combinatory coordination’.

It offers a compilation linguistic definitions and reference in a compact format which will be most useful for teachers language studies, students English language and linguistics, and lay readers who wish to understand some the niceties English grammar. It’s also worth saying that by covering the written and spoken language in both the UK and America, it is intended for English-speakers anywhere in the world.

© Roy Johnson 2000

Oxford Reference Grammar   Buy the book at Amazon UK

Oxford Reference Grammar   Buy the book at Amazon US

The Oxford Reference Grammar, (ed Edmund Weiner), Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000, pp.410, ISBN: 0198600445

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