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Dictionary of British Place Names

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origins of UK town, hamlet, and village names

Have you ever wondered how places such as Eccles, Stoke Poges, Great Snoring, Lower Peover, or Leighton Buzzard get their names? This Dictionary of British Place Names will tell you, and give you details about the historical background. The reason there are so many unusual names for British towns, villages, and hamlets is of course that the UK has been invaded by so many different nations in the past. They have left their languages stamped all over the land.

Oxford Dictionary of British Place NamesAnd as the author of this specialist dictionary points out, foreign languages actually persist in place names more than in the living language, because place names are not likely to change, whereas the spoken language does. There are over 17,000 entries listed here – alphabetically, from Abbas Combe in Somerset to Zennor in Cornwall. Most place names come from Old English, Danish, Norse, and Celtic, with only a smattering from Norman-French, and Latin. And not all of the etymologies are as obvious as they might seem.

For instance, many place names which occur a lot can in fact come from different origins. Broughton occurs in several counties and combinations such as Broughton Astley (Leics) and Broughton Poggs (Oxon). But the name can come from ‘brook farmstead’, ‘hill farmstead’, or ‘fortified farmstead’.

The opposite phenomenon also occurs – where the same thing can give rise to different names. Thus Keswick and Chiswick both come from ‘cheese farm’.

Most of the names listed are likely to be at least a thousand years old, and structurally they are often in two parts. The first may be a place, person, tribal, or river-name – and it qualifies the second part. Thus Bakewell was originally Badecanwelle formed from Badeca + wella = ‘Spring or stream of a man called Badeca’.

There’s a glossary of common elements in British place names – such as baernet, land cleared by burning; mynster, minster or large church; and stoc, outlying farmstead or hamlet. This occurs in my own home town of Stockport – which I notice has just appeared in the designed-for-Xmas novelty publication, Crap Towns: The 50 Worst Places to Live in the UK.

© Roy Johnson 2011

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A.D. Mills, Oxford Dictionary of British Place Names, Oxford: Oxford University Press, revised edition, 2011, pp.576, ISBN: 019960908X

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Dictionary of British Politics

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UK parliament, its members, and political affairs

If you want to know what’s going on in UK society and politics today, the Dictionary of British Politics is the definitive resource. It’s written by a best-selling authority on the subject of parliament, personalities, and modern politics. Entries span from Diane Abbot and the Acts of Union, via the Maastrict Treaty and Gus MacDonald, to Tim Yeo and the Zinoviev letter. I don’t know why the entries are split into two parts – politics and people – but there’s a list of web sites and a good list of further reading.

Dictionary of British PoliticsThese make you feel confident that the author is on top of his subject. (So confident that he’s even just started a daily political blog at SKIPPER). It covers the personalities, policies, and institutions that have shaped British politics. The entries are short, lively, and authoritative. What I liked in particular was the mixture of biographical sketches (Killroy-Silk failed his eleven-plus exam) and entries which give thumbnail accounts of larger issues, events, and movements such as Marxism, the Kyoto Protocol, and election rules, as well as politically influential forces such as newspapers, pressure groups, and the media.

This is a book which I imagine will be invaluable to any student of politics or general readers who want to know what’s going on now in the UK. It will also help them to understand the details of the many organisations and pressure groups which compete to influence political power.

All information is well cross-referenced. So for instance, the entry on the Daily Mail provides the newspaper’s web site; it points to the entry for its original owner Alfred Harmsworth; and it flags up its support for the above-mentioned bogus Zinoviev letter.

The coverage even extends to social issues such as water privatisation, party political broadcasts, cronyism, and arcane parliamentary issues such as the Chiltern Hundreds: (I didn’t realise there were three).

It also covers members of parliament, government policies, the important bits of parliamentary history, political theories, historical landmarks, and even newspapers and their proprietors who influence events. The latest edition also covers the many scandals in political life during the last few years.

© Roy Johnson 2010

Dictionary of British Politics   Buy the book at Amazon UK

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Bill Jones, Dictionary of British Politics, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2nd revised edition 2010. p.496. ISBN: 0719079403

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Dictionary of Classical Myth and Religion

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comprehensive A to Z reference to the classical world

This Dictionary of Classical Myth and Religionis a serious reference book providing invaluable information not only on Greek and Roman mythologies but also on religion in the Graeco-Roman world, including both Judaism and Christianity. It runs from Abaris, legendary devotee of Apollo, through to Zoroaster (who I didn’t realise was the Greek form of the Iranian Zarathrustra). Many of the entries are the length of mini essays. The compilation includes both Greek mythology and Roman festivals, religious places, gods, deities, divination, astrology, and magic. There are also entries on Egyptian religion, Christian beliefs, Homer, Judaism, magic, and river gods.

Dictionary of Classical Myth and ReligionSo, in a typical entry you are given multiple interpretations and sources. Electra for instance is daughter of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra and sister of Orestes, but she is also alternatively daughter of Atlas and Pleione, mother by Zeus of Dardanus and Iasion.

You can also look up classical notions such as the polis, votive offerings, and hubris (‘intentionally dishonouring behaviour’ – not ‘pride or over-confidence’) .

Iliona, in mythology, eldest daughter of Priam and Hecuba. Wife of Polymestor (see HECUBA), she saved the life of Polydorus in a variant version by passing him off as her son, Polymestor thus murdering his own child.
(Virgil, Aeneid 1. 653-4)

The main text is supplemented by an important introductory essay providing
overviews of mythology, religious pluralism in the ancient world, and the
reception of myths from antiquity to the present.

This is a serious, heavyweight, and comprehensive work of reference. It also contains maps, lists of genealogical tables, a thematic index, and an extensive bibliography. An ideal resource for students and teachers of ancient history and religion and anyone interested in the ancient world.

© Roy Johnson 2003

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Simon Price and Emily Kearns, The Oxford Dictionary of Classical Myth and Religion, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003, pp.599, ISBN: 0192802887

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Dictionary of Contemporary Slang

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street-speak, vulgar language, swearing and obscenities

It’s very difficult for dictionary compilers to keep up with the development of slang. Would you have known what chav and bling meant a year ago – in 2004 that is? But Tony Thorne’s compilation certainly captures most of the new street language that is passing into common usage as I write towards the end of 2005. Of course some of it may not last, but I have the feeling his selection is well-judged.

Dictionary of Contemporary SlangHe offers more than 15,000 definitions, many of the terms drawn from the worlds of drugs, sport, youth culture, and television, as well as traditional slang topics such as sex, money, and bodily functions. He also explains how and when the terms are used, with notes on nuance, tone, and associations. The language items are drawn from Britain, America, and Australia, as well as other English-speaking countries. He gives plenty of examples of usage and cites sources wherever possible.

He defines slang quite persuasively as “language selected for its striking informality”. And of course it’s is a loose enough term to encompass irreverence, vulgarity, new jargon, and obscenity – as well as the coded terms used by minority groups as a sort of secret language.

I was glad to see that he acknowledges one of my favourite sources of contemporary slang – Roger’s Profanisaurus – and cites it as the source for their wonderful synonym for bonkers which seems to still be in general circulation – “He’s gone completely hatstand“.

He also includes Cockney rhyming slang, which is still popular and spawning new variants all the time – although his entry on the now-disgraced Garry Glitter does not illustrate a beverage as other slang dictionaries claim, but a body part – itself a slang term. (I’ll leave you to work that one out.)

And he’s good at keeping dated slang in the lexicon. Probably not many people under forty would know that ‘gams’ is a slang term for shapely legs (on a woman of course) or that it comes from the Old Northern French term gamb – obviously itself closely related to jambe.

He’s also good at noting the mutiple possible meanings of words: fag can be a male homosexual or something you smoke. [Oops! it’s all a linguistic minefield.] So – a typical entry runs as follows, fully explaining the term:

naff adj

tasteless, inferior, shoddy, and unappealing. Naff had existed in working-class slang for at least 40 years by the time it became a vogue word in the later 1970s. It had been used in the jargon of prostitutes to mean nothing or negligible. In the theatrical, criminal and street-trading milieus it meant third-rate or poor quality. The word’s sudden popularity occurred probably because it was seized upon by TV scriptwriters (particularly Dick Clement and Ian la Frenais in the comic series Porridge) as an acceptable euphemism for fuck in such forms as ‘naff-all’ (meaning fuck-all), naffing and naff off. Naff’s ultimate origin, which seems to be 19th century, is nonetheless obscure. It has been claimed that it is a backslang form of fann(y) (in the sense of females sex organs) or an acronym or alteration of a phrase involving the word fuck (‘not a fucking fart’ or similar). Neither etymology is attested (or particularly convincing), and the similarity to NAFFI is probably coincidental-

‘To be naff is to be unstylish, whatever that may mean.’

(The Complete Naff Guide, Bryson, et al, 1983)

A lot of the examples he gives are actually US slang which is passing into UK usage, but he explains the provenance. He includes phrases as well as individual words – as in choke the chicken and smuggling peanuts.

Tony Thorne knows his stuff. There’s no slack here. The language of the street is up front. He doesn’t pretend to the sort of historical depth you get with Eric Partridge, but this is as up-to-date a dictionary of ‘strikingly informal’ contemporary language as you are likely to find.

© Roy Johnson 2007

Dictionary of Contemporary Slang   Buy the book at Amazon UK

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Tony Thorne, Dictionary of Contemporary Slang, London: A and C Black, 3rd revised edition, 2006, pp.512, ISBN: 0713675292

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Dictionary of English Folklore

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traditional beliefs, customs, myths, and superstitions

How would you find out what myths are attached to hedgehogs – or about cures for warts? It’s no good looking in the excellent Brewer’s Dictionary of Phrase and Fable, because that deals with sayings and people, not beliefs and activities. This Dictionary of English Folklore is a compendium of national beliefs which describes in reasonably objective terms the customs, myths, and superstitions associated with traditional English culture.

Dictionary of English Folklore It excludes other parts of the British Isles on the grounds that Scotland, Ireland and Wales have their own languages, through which these beliefs have been transmitted. And if even a fraction of these beliefs are alive and well in the twenty-first century, it speaks volumes for the strength of tradition. It covers what it calls ‘oral and performance’ genres – such as cheese rolling, Morris dancing, and well dressing – which I can confirm are alive and popular in the part of England that I inhabit (except for the cheese rolling: we just eat it and have the oldest, Cheshire).

Mythical characters such as Robin Hood, Merlin, Beowulf, and father Christmas are examined – as well as what people believe about parts of the body. This includes the significance of certain fingers, the eyebrows, the nose, and especially the thumb – from ‘OK’ to ‘obscene’.

The significance of special days in the calendar are well documented – All Saints’ day, St Agnes’ Eve (especially significant for love) – and there are beliefs associated with simple items such as plants – cowslip, parsley, foxglove, and clover.

They also cover archaeological items such as Stonehenge, Camelot, and my own special favourite ever since I first cycled past it as a youth – the Cerne Abbas Giant.

The line the authors take is a reasonable compromise between detached description and sympathetic endorsement of these beliefs. They are not afraid to debunk some ideas – such as the belief that ‘Ring-a-ring-a-roses’ is connected with the Great Plague. (The first English versions were recorded in a New Year ceremony in Allendale, Northumberland, in which the men march through the village with blazing tar barrels – a custom which only started in 1858.)

So if you want to check out fairy rings, Devil’s hoofprints, frog showers, pancake races, sin-eating, and the special significance of Saturday – it’s all here. If there’s evidence, they give it. If not, they usually give it the benefit of the doubt. You can make up your own mind.

© Roy Johnson 2003

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J. Simpson (ed), Dictionary of English Folklore, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003, pp.420, ISBN: 0198607660

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Dictionary of English Idioms

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explanations of familiar phrases and popular sayings

Dictionary of English Idioms. Do you know the origin of the expressions ‘as mad as a hatter’ – ‘to cut the mustard’ – or ‘a mess of pottage ‘? I knew the first one, because it comes from my home town, Stockport in Cheshire UK, where milleners went slightly bonkers from the use of mercury in hat manufacturing. [And if the expression also reminds you of Lewis Carrol, we’re not far from Dewsbury where he was born.]

English IdiomsThis is another of OUP’s cheap and cheerful specialist dictionaries, containing 6,000 idioms, alphabetically arranged by key word, and covering metaphorical phrases, familiar quotations and proverbs, and similes. It provides meanings for well-known idioms such as set the world alight, cost an arm and a leg, once in a blue moon, and many more. A date of origin is often given and many entries are supported by illustrative quotations from sources as varied as the Bible, the Spectator, and the novels of Agatha Christie.

The collection covers expressions from British English (the man on the Clapham omnibus) as well as American English (cut to the chase) and quite a few from Australian English (give someone Bondi). Full of fascinating facts, this dictionary is ideal for anyone with an interest in the origins of words and phrases. Arrangement of words alphabetically by key word means easy browsing.

As a work of reference, it will probably be of most use to someone trying to improve their English, or someone trying to become more intimately acquainted with those parts of a language which cannot be absorbed by knowledge of vocabulary and grammar alone. How else for instance would a foreigner learn the meaning of raining cats and dogs? But ultimately it will be attractive to anyone interested in the origins of the colloquial and quirky byways of the English language.

Dictionary of English Idioms   Buy the book at Amazon UK

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© Roy Johnson 2010

John Ayto, Oxford Dictionary of Idioms, Oxford: Oxford University Press, third edition, 2010, pp.408, ISBN: 019954378X

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Dictionary of Euphemisms

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how not to say what you mean

Don’t be fooled by the title. The Dictionary of Euphemisms is much more than a collection of polite expressions. It’s also a detailed inventory of slang, sexual code terms, metaphors, evasiveness, underworld argot, and indecent language. The terms are explained, discussed, illustrated, and commented upon in a witty and it has to be said rather dryly satirical manner. The compiler is a business man who has no truck with fashionable political correctness or weak-kneed liberalism, and he takes a particular interest in the way ‘professions’ avoid speaking plainly of their doings. The obvious topics which invoke euphemism are sex, lavatories, drinking, drugs, crime, and death.

Dictionary of EuphemismsBut the not-so-obvious are commerce, politics, warfare, illness, and ideological belief. He gives an explanation of each term, a note on its origin where appropriate, and an example of its use in print. So much one might expect in a serious work of reference, but it is the additional notes which give the book its zest and resonance.

language swear words
A shortened form of bad language:

I’ll have no man usin’ language i’ my house. (D.Murray, 1886—he was not a Trappist abbot)

In America language arts is educational and sociological jargon for the ability to speak coherently.

He has no hesitation in exposing the evasions in current political correctness: African-descended = black (never used for Egyptians, Moroccans, or Boers). And he’s particularly good at reminding us of the euphemisms of everyday life:

after-shave = perfume for men;
haute cuisine = small portions of expensive food;
family = not pornographic.

He’s not without a witty turn of phrase:

bestseller a book of which the first impression is not remaindered
consultant a senior employee who has been dismissed

and he’s also good at uncovering military euphemism:

deliver to drop an explosive on an enemy
air support a military attack

Linguistically, it’s amazing how one word can be used for completely opposite meanings, and how many different meanings can be squeezed out of a single word – such as do and go.

There are lots of expressions so common you will hardly think of them as euphemisms – such as happen to in the expression ‘if anything should happen to me’ – meaning ‘to die’.

The latest fourth edition has been revised and updated to include recent coinages, there is a thematic index, and quite an interesting bibliography. This is a browser’s treasure trove. I took it on holiday and after a week’s bad weather had only got as far as letter D. It’s a must-have for anyone interested in language and the way it is used in everyday life.

© Roy Johnson 2008

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R.W.Holder, The Oxford Dictionary of Euphemisms, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 4th edition 2008, pp.432, ISBN: 0199235171

DICTIONARIES

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Dictionary of Foreign Words & Phrases

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What is the plural of fez? How should we pronounce millefeuille? And where would you see a strabismus? The words can come from anywhere: the Latin, German, and French by whom we were once occupied, imports from Britain’s own former colonies, and modern coinages from around the world. The Dictionary of Foreign Words and Phrases includes a guide to pronunciation, over 8,000 entries, and the words and phrases are drawn from over forty languages – including Afrikaans, Chinese, Greek, Hebrew, Hindustani, Latin, Malay, and Turkish.

Dictionary of Foreign Words and PhrasesIf ever you had any doubt concerning the English Language’s propensity to soak up and use words from many other languages, have a look at this amazing collection. Entries run from the Greco-Roman import abacus, a cappella, and ab initio through futon and moloch to tamagotchi and the German Zwischenzug, which didn’t mean ‘through train’ as I thought but turned out to be a chess move.

There are details of the history of each word or phrase, including its language of origin and any original spelling, and an account of its current use in English. There’s also an appendix in which the terms included are listed by their language of origin as well as the century during which they were introduced into English.

Quotations are used throughout the text to illustrate the terms in their English context. A typical example reads as follows:

deus ex machina noun phrase L17 Modern Latin (translation of Greek theos ek mekhanes, literally, ‘god from the machinery’). A power, event, or person arriving in the nick of time to solve a difficulty; a providential (often rather contrived) interposition, especially in a novel or play.

  • The ‘machine’ was originally the device by which deities were suspended above the stage in the theatre in classical antiquity. The phrase is generally used in its entirety but also occurs abbreviated to ex machina, with another agent of providence substituted for deus (see quotation 1996(2)).
    attributive 1996 Spectator The deus ex machina resolution of the drama may provide one of the most feeble denouements in all opera.
    1996 Times In this ideal scenario, growth in Europe turns up and deficits come down without anyone on this side of the Atlantic having to do anything. EMU ex machina.

This is a wonderfully rich and useful source of reference. Like most other specialist dictionaries, it profits by ommission. That is, all the obvious and boring stuff is left out. What remains is an excellent source of reference for anyone who is interested in words and their origins.

Because the entries are from such a wide variety of sources, reading continuously is a curiously refreshing experience. It might seem a bit nerdish to admit the fact, but I read the entire collection from cover to cover.

Oh, and by the way, the plural of fez is fezzes. Bet you didn’t know that.

© Roy Johnson 2010

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Oxford Dictionary of Foreign Words and Phrases, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2nd edition 2010, pp.432, ISBN: 0199543682

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Dictionary of Graphic Design

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illustrated encyclopedia of all matters related to design

This is a comprehensive guide to international developments in graphic design. From pre-industrial printing presses and medieval typography to computer graphics and avant-garde stylistic advances. The Dictionary of Graphic Design provides information about graphic designers, typographers, journals, movements and styles, organisations and schools, printers and private presses, art directors, technological advances, design studios, graphic illustrators, and poster artists. The entries are in alphabetical order ranging from the ABC system of standard paper sizes via Mackintosh and John Maeda to typographists Hermann Zapf and Piet Zwart.

Dictionary of Graphic DesignEntries are cross-referenced, and there’s also a chronological chart which outlines the relationship between movements, technology and designers around the world.This second edition has been completely revised, updated, and completely redesigned by Derek Birdsall. It includes 485 wonderfully varied illustrations which give a stunning visual record. It’s a shame they are mainly in black and white, but in such a bargain-price book I don’t suppose we can have everything.

They cover a wide range of media, including advertising, corporate identity, posters, packaging, magazine and book design, as well as fine art and illustration.

It’s very well informed and clearly based on in-depth knowledge of the subject. The authors cover all aspects of graphic design from 1840 to the present day – from William Morris, inspired by nature, and El Lissitzky’s Constructivist design, to the Designer Republic’s visuals for the music and club scene and John Maeda’s computer graphics.

There’s an illustration of almost every individual designer mentioned, and they are particularly generous towards younger contemporaries such as Mark Farrow and Peter Saville, whose work has been in CD and LP record cover design industry.

I checked out their entries on popular designers such as Neville Brody, David Carson, and Paul Rand, and all of them were spot on. The collection also introduced me to many designers whose work I recognised but who I had never heard of before.

© Roy Johnson 2004

Dictionary of Graphic Design   Buy the book at Amazon UK

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Alan and Isabella Livingston, Dictionary of Graphic Design and Designers, London: Thames & Hudson, 2003, pp.239, ISBN: 0500203539

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Dictionary of Humorous Quotations

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memorable quips, bon mots, ripostes, and one-liners

There are subtle shades of distinction to be made between a saying which is funny, humorous, or witty. Funny makes you laugh, humorous produces what someone called ‘a smile in the mind’, and witty is usually associated with a rapid intellectual riposte – a nimbleness of mind. Ned Sherrin is right to call his compilation ‘humorous’. It’s probably best to ration yourself to a few pages now and again – otherwise they all tend to blend into a sort of verbal soup. But I must say I’m a sucker for these compendiums, and I couldn’t stop myself reading this one through from start to finish. It reflects Sherrin’s theatrical bent that he includes so many quotes and bon mots from the stage and its authors. Lots of Noel Coward, John Gielgud, Ralph Richardson, and as a wonderful camp lyricist, Cole Porter comes out well too.

Dictionary of Humorous QuotationsMae West is as quotable as ever. Commenting on the possible choice of a leading man, she observes: “Let’s forget about the six feet and talk about the seven inches”. [I learned recently that she used to work very hard writing and honing these one-liners.] Dorothy Parker is good too: “If all the girls attending the prom were laid end to end, I wouldn’t be surprised.”

There are also a lot of entries from song lyricists, which makes you appreciate someone like Ira Gershwin even more when you realise that he wrote the music as well as the words to But Not for Me

With love to lead the way,
I’ve found more clouds of grey
Than any Russian play
Could guarantee . . .
. . . When ev’ry happy plot
Ends with the marriage knot –
And there’s no knot for me.

There are also random gems, such as this, attributed to Dick Vosburgh: “I haven’t been so happy since the day that Reader’s Digest lost my address”. And some come anonymously out of the side field, as in “Death is nature’s way of telling you to slow down”.

There are even gnomic contributions from scientists – such as Werner Von Braun’s “Basic research is what I’m doing when I don’t know what I’m doing.” And I even have a sneaky admiration for George Best’s self-defense: “People say I wasted my money. I say 90 per cent went on women, fast cars, and booze. The rest I wasted.”

I didn’t realise that the expression “A camel is a horse designed by a committee” is attributed to Alex Issigonis, the Greek-born designer of the Mini – nor that the expression “The lunatics are taking over the asylum” was occasioned by the takeover of the United Artists film production company by Charlie Chaplin, Mary Pickford, Douglas Fairbanks, and D. W. Griffith.

Devotees of UK radio and TV programmes will be interested to know that there’s a whole section on catchphrases – from Mrs Mopp’s “Can I do you now, sir?” [ITMA] to “You might well think that. I couldn’t possibly comment” from House of Cards.

P.J. O’Rourke is on good form throughout the compilation, and for someone who is essentially regarded as a right-wing commentator, he can be surprisingly radical:

Wherever there is suffering, injustice and oppression, the Americans will show up, six months late, and bomb the country next to where it’s happening.

This might have been written with ironic intent, but it doesn’t strike me as being really humorous – because it is so chillingly close to the truth.

On ‘Pride’, I was glad to see that Jeanette Winterson’s self-estimation was being kept alive as a deterrent to others. She was asked to name the best living author writing in English.

No one working in the English language now comes close to my exuberance, my passion, my fidelity to words.

Not funny – not even humorous – but bracing as an example of hubris.

It’s superbly browsable, but as the nearly 5,000 quotations are grouped by more than 100 themes, it’s also a reference with practical applications.

The entries run from Acting and Advertising to Writing and Youth. Then there’s an index of authors and the topics whereon they have written. And if that’s not enough, there’s also a keyword index – so there’s no shortage of routes to what you might be looking for.

John Paul Getty’s formula for success: “Rise early. Work late. Strike oil.”

© Roy Johnson 2009

Dictionary of Humorous Quotations   Buy the book at Amazon UK

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Ned Sherrin (ed), Oxford Dictionary of Humorous Quotations, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 4th edition, 2009, pp.560, ISBN: 019957006X

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